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Lsat writing sample - a step-by-step guide + example.

Reviewed by:

David Merson

Former Head of Pre-Law Office, Northeastern University, & Admissions Officer, Brown University

Reviewed: 3/18/24

The writing section is an often overlooked part of the Law School Admission Test. Read on to learn how to approach the LSAT Writing Sample.

Part of becoming an excellent lawyer is having strong persuasive oral and written communication skills. Law schools require students to complete a writing sample as part of the challenging LSAT exam to assess potential law students on this skill.

If writing under pressure isn’t your forte, this guide will go over what you can expect on the writing sample, how to complete it efficiently, and give you a sample LSAT prompt to help you prepare!

LSAT Writing Sample Prompt

Just like sample LSAT questions can help you study, looking at essay examples can help you prepare. Here’s a past LSAT writing sample prompt you can use to begin honing your writing skills! 

​​Brighter Construction is deciding which of two upcoming construction projects to bid on—resurfacing Hilltop Road or expanding Carlene Boulevard. 

Since Brighter cannot fulfill both contracts at the same time and bids constitute binding commitments, Brighter can only bid on one of the projects. Using the facts below, write an essay arguing for one project over the other based on the following two criteria:

- Brighter wants to enhance its reputation among potential clients

- Brighter wants to increase its capacity to take on bigger projects

The Hilltop Road resurfacing is a small project. The potential profit is relatively low. With Brighter’s experience and resources, it is almost certain to win the contract, and it is highly likely to finish on time and within budget. Brighter has an established reputation for finishing projects on time and within budget.  

Brighter has specialized in small projects. Construction firms specializing in small projects find it increasingly difficult over time to win contracts for bigger projects. If the project is completed under budget, Brighter will keep the extra money. 

If it is over budget, Brighter must cover the additional costs. Brighter will use any extra money to purchase additional heavy equipment. 

The Carlene Boulevard expansion is a large project. The potential profit is much higher. It involves a kind of work that Brighter has never done before and that would require it to explain its operation. Because of the overall nature of this project, Brighter believes it has a good chance of winning the contract.

It is uncertain whether Brighter can finish the project on time and within budget. Even if brighter exceeds time and budget constraints, it will gain valuable experience. If the project goes over budget, Brighter will lose money. 

As you can see, this prompt offers two courses of action and asks you to choose whichever matches the stated criteria best. After carefully reading the prompt and following the above tips, you should be able to formulate a solid argument!

Model Answer Example

Here is a great LSAT writing example for the above prompt: 

“Based on the two criteria given, it is advisable for Brighter Construction to bid on the Carlene Boulevard expansion project.

Firstly, to enhance Brighter Construction's reputation, winning and completing the Carlene Boulevard project would have greater benefits than the Hilltop Road resurfacing project. While it is true that Brighter Construction has established a reputation for finishing projects on time and within budgets, this reputation is limited to small projects. 

As the prompt suggests, specializing in small projects can make it harder for companies to win contracts for bigger projects over time. Brighter Construction can demonstrate its ability to handle larger, more complex projects by taking on the challenge of an expandable project like Carlene Boulevard. Clients looking for construction firms to manage big projects will take notice of this. Furthermore, as the prompt indicates, the Carlene Boulevard expansion has the potential for higher profits. 

Winning this project will open up doors for Brighter Construction, which can lead to more high-profit projects in the future. It will be an excellent chance for Brighter Construction to expand its operation and be better positioned to take on even more significant projects. Therefore, even if Brighter Construction does not profit from the Carlene Boulevard expansion project, it can prepare itself to handle bigger projects better than before and take up more significant opportunities in the future.

The Carlene Boulevard expansion project presents a more significant opportunity on the second criterion of increasing capacity to take on bigger projects. As mentioned above, this project is much bigger and requires new and more advanced resources. Hence, Brighter Construction will acquire the necessary resources to handle bigger projects after winning this project. This experience will allow Brighter Construction to take on more large-scale projects. The company will have successfully expanded its operations, and thus, it can bid on more significant projects in the future. The more significant the projects Brighter Construction takes on, the higher the profits that come with them.

Moreover, the Carlene Boulevard expansion project will provide valuable experience to Brighter Construction. The fact that it is unsure if it will complete the project on time and within budget means that the company will learn new skills, gain new insights, and discover new strategies. Brighter Construction will learn to optimize its resources better if it exceeds budget constraints. The company will undoubtedly face challenges and obstacles throughout the project, and this experience will be priceless. It will enable Brighter Construction to improve its work quality and overall competence and help win more significant projects in the future.

In conclusion, while the Hilltop Road resurfacing project seems safer, Brighter Construction should bid on the Carlene Boulevard expansion project to enhance its reputation among potential clients and increase its capacity to take on more significant projects. This project will provide Brighter Construction with valuable experience, allow it to acquire new resources, and allow the company to prove its ability to handle more substantial projects successfully. Winning this project will be an excellent chance for Brighter Construction to expand its operations, prepare to take on even more significant opportunities in the future, and increase its profitability accordingly.”

Why This Answer Is Good

What makes this essay good is that it gets straight to the point. It strongly argues for one side and provides relevant examples to support that argument. 

The essay advocates for Brighter Construction to prioritize bidding on the Carlene Boulevard expansion project over the Hilltop Road resurfacing project based on enhancing reputation and increasing capacity for larger projects. 

It successfully argues that winning the Carlene project would demonstrate the company's ability to handle more significant endeavors and open doors to higher-profit opportunities. 

How is the LSAT Writing Test Scored? 

The LSAT writing sample is not scored and does not affect your overall LSAT writing score. However, it is still considered an integral part of the admissions process as it provides a window into your aptitude for a career as a lawyer. 

Similar to the experimental section, the writing sample is reviewed by admissions committees alongside your LSAT score and other application materials to evaluate your ability to construct a well-organized, logically coherent argument. 

Each law school evaluates the writing sample differently, but missing or weak responses have been used as grounds for rejection by law schools.

How to Approach the LSAT Writing Sample

Planning and writing an entire essay within 35 minutes might seem intimidating. To make this process less daunting, here are our top steps to approach the writing sample. 

By going through each of these steps, you can not only help you master the writing section, but you’ll also free up space to focus on the rest of your LSAT prep . It’s a smart way to balance your study time.

Read the Prompt Carefully

Before you begin writing your essay, you must consider all the facts. You should be able to make your decision based solely on the information you have given. Read the prompt carefully to determine which side you can create the best argument for. 

Focus on the Facts

Even if you’re well-versed in the topic presented, you should only use the information given to you to make an argument. Do not include outside information that you believe will strengthen your argument.

Admissions committees want to see how you create arguments with limited information to test your analysis and reasoning skills. 

Remember, There Is No Right or Wrong Answer

There is no right or wrong answer to these prompts. They are presented in a way that will make it somewhat challenging to choose the option with the most supporting evidence, but either side can be argued.

Choose whichever side you feel you can create the most persuasive argument for, even if it goes against what you would traditionally side with.

If you’re having difficulty choosing a side, try to jot down a few pros and cons for each and see which side has the most pros. 

Make a Plan

To avoid wasting time, getting writer’s block, or writing an incohesive essay, you should give yourself around 10 minutes to plan your essay. Create a quick outline detailing what each paragraph of your essay will argue.

Many LSAT test-takers write their sample in a series of short or only two paragraphs—one detailing the advantages of their chosen side and another detailing the disadvantages of the opposing side. You should choose a structure you feel most comfortable with.

Your first paragraph should state your stance. In your remaining paragraphs, you should mention the strengths of your choice and the cons of the opposite side. 

Your writing sample will also list certain criteria when choosing a side. Ensure you include these in your outline. 

Conclude your essay briefly by reiterating your stance and summarizing the main reasons you chose one side over the other. Your essay plan should be completed using jot notes to avoid wasting the time you’ll need to write and revise your sample.

Keep Your Writing Clear and Concise

The best way to get your point across clearly is to use simple language that is easy to understand. Do not try to impress the committee by using vocabulary you aren’t familiar with. You should also only use words that you are sure you can spell correctly. 

Leave Time to Edit

While 35 minutes may not seem like a lot of time, once you’ve created a rough plan for your essay, it won’t take too long to write it out. Remember, this essay should only be a few short paragraphs! 

You will make at least a few silly errors as you race against the clock to finish your essay and hit the LSAT writing deadline. Since this sample is meant to give the admissions committee insight into your writing skills, you must revise your writing to eliminate any avoidable spelling, grammar, or syntax errors. 

Give yourself around five minutes to review your sample to find these mistakes before submitting it. 

Step-by-Step Guide on How to Approach LSAT Writing Essay

If you have no idea where to start for your LSAT writing sample, don’t fret. We’ve compiled a step-by-step guide to help you break down the writing process. 

Taking time to practice your LSAT writing essay is a great way to self-study for the LSAT . You may also want to look at an LSAT writing example to get your ideas flowing as you practice your writing. 

But the best way to improve your writing is simply to write! So, please look at our guide below to help you learn how to approach the LSAT writing sample. 

Step One: Compare and Contrast

To build a strong argument, you need to understand both sides thoroughly. Before writing, create a list to compare and contrast the opposing arguments. This way, you can weigh the choices before you decide which side you’re on. 

There are several ways to do this. You may create a side-by-side chart, a pro-and-con list, a Venn diagram, or a thought map—the possibilities are endless! Use whatever works best for you to organize your thoughts effectively. 

Step Two: Prioritize

Now, it’s time to examine each argument carefully. Pay attention to its strengths and weaknesses and the criteria and factors provided. 

When prioritizing, consider what is most important in the situation. Which potential consequence would be a greater loss? This should help clarify which argument is stronger. 

Step Three: Make a Decision

Considering all of the above, choose a side to argue for. Be confident and prepared to defend your choice in your essay fully. Use the brainstorming you’ve done in steps one and two to create an outline for your writing sample. 

Step Four: Get Writing

Now that your argument has been built, it’s time to start writing! Remember to keep it concise--every sentence should be purposeful and necessary. Avoid fluff and filler words. 

Defend Your Choice

Start by explaining why your choice is the best one. List the factors that you prioritized and your reasons for doing so. You should have at least three strong reasons for your argument. 

Since there is no “right” answer, your argument may have weak points, which you should address. Explain why these weak points aren't significant or how the strengths in your argument compensate for them. 

Explain How the Opposition Falls Short

You don’t have to bash the other side. It’s a good idea to mention the opposition's strengths, as it shows you’ve made your decision carefully. But you should point out the “fatal flaw” of the other choice that led you to reject it. Be thorough and explain your thinking in detail. 

Step Five: Revise

Thoughtless errors never put you in a good light with admissions committees. As we mentioned before, leave yourself some time to proofread your writing sample and edit out any mistakes! 

Common Mistakes in LSAT Writing Section

Here are some common mistakes to avoid when completing the LSAT Writing section.

Misinterpreting the Prompt

Misinterpreting the LSAT essay prompt is a common mistake that significantly undermines the essay's effectiveness. This error occurs when test-takers fail to fully grasp the nuances of the prompt, leading to essays that address the wrong issue. 

Rapid reading without carefully considering the specific question can result in a lack of understanding between the essay's content and the intended evaluative criteria. This weakens the essay's persuasiveness and coherence. 

To avoid this, test-takers should invest time in comprehending the prompt, identifying key issues, and ensuring their responses specifically address the outlined instructions.

Lack of Evidence

Not using evidence to support your argument in an LSAT essay weakens the persuasive power of arguments. This mistake often results from inadequate preparation or time constraints, leading to hastily chosen examples. 

To address this, test-takers should prioritize relevant, specific, and well-developed evidence to ensure the credibility of their claims and avoid potential counterarguments that could weaken the overall persuasiveness of the essay.

Provide a Clear Conclusion

A lack of a proper conclusion in an LSAT essay diminishes its impact by depriving the reader of a clear takeaway. This oversight, often due to time constraints, results in an abrupt ending that leaves the essay incomplete. 

A well-crafted conclusion, summarizing key points and offering a compelling final thought, is crucial for reinforcing the main ideas and enhancing the overall coherence and impact of the essay.

Are you wondering if you’re ready to take the LSAT? Take this “ Am I Ready For the LSAT? Quiz ” to determine if you can take this difficult exam! 

FAQs: LSAT Writing 

Here are some commonly asked questions about this section of the LSAT, to help you understand what to expect and how to prepare.

1. How Long Should My Writing Sample on the LSAT Be?

While your writing sample has no word limit, you should aim to be as clear and concise as possible. Most writing samples on the LSAT are between two and four paragraphs long. Ensure you prioritize quality over quantity.

2. How to Prepare for the Writing Sample on the LSAT?

The best way to prepare for the writing sample is to review sample prompts and answer them under the same time constraints you’ll be in on test day.

3. Do Law Schools Read the Writing Sample on the LSAT?

Yes, law schools do read the writing samples to assess candidates’ writing and argumentative skills.

4. How Long Is the Writing Sample on the LSAT? 

You will have 35 minutes to complete the writing sample on the LSAT. 

5. Do You Have to Take The LSAT Writing More Than Once?

No, you do not have to take LSAT writing more than once. You are only required to submit one writing sample for your LSAT to be considered complete.

Final Thoughts

Given the stress you’ll be under trying to master all three sections of the LSAT, knowing you’ll also have to write an essay can make acing the LSAT seem impossible! 

Knowing how to approach the LSAT to write the most effective argument should ease some of this stress and help ensure you write a compelling sample to impress the judges!

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Writing Samples, References & Transcripts

Writing samples.

Section Menu

• Be prepared with a writing sample at the start of the application process
• Include a writing sample with your initial application materials only if requested
• Submit a writing sample when asked, often during interview process
• Note for clerkship applicants: include a writing sample with your initial application materials and be prepared to submit a second writing sample during the interview process
• Select a writing sample which illustrates high quality legal research, writing, and analytical skills
• Pick a document which best demonstrates your current skill set
• Choose a sample with as little editing by others as possible
• For a published work, send an early, unedited draft
• Do not concern yourself with the topic of the writing sample
• Follow the employer’s directions
• Default length: 5-10 pages (7-15 for clerkship applications)
• Single or double spaced equally acceptable
• Select a section of a longer document, if needed, to remain within range

Important Procedures for Employer Documents

• Obtain the employer’s permission if you use a document prepared for an employer
• Follow employer’s directions to modify
• Redact to preserve client confidentiality

Cover Sheet

• Attach a cover sheet to your sample
• Provides necessary background and identifies document clearly for busy reader
• Explain extent of editing by others
• Describe other aspects of document, if using an excerpt
• Include name of the class and a brief description of the assignment
• Note that you have obtained the employer’s permission
• Discuss modifications and redactions

Writing Sample Cover Sheet Examples

List of References

• Include a list of references with your initial application materials only if requested
• who have direct experience with you as a law student or as an employee
• who can discuss your skills, especially legal research, writing and analysis; ability to assume responsibility; and interpersonal skills
• class participation
• conversations outside of class
• research or other independent work
• clinic participation
• Small group professor is a typical choice for first-year students
• Legal employer or pre-law school employer who directly supervised you
• Undergraduate professor (least preferred, and only appropriate for first-year students in the fall semester)

Communicate with your Referees

• Have a frank conversation prior to listing someone as a reference
• Describe your career interests as they relate to the employers to which you are applying
• Provide them with a copy of your resume
• Be sure that they are comfortable providing you a strong, positive recommendation

Recommendation Letters

• Recommendation letters are not required by most employers
• Post-graduate fellowships
• Post-graduate clerkships
• Review CDO fellowship and clerkship guides for advice on securing letters of recommendation

Sample List of References

Transcripts

• Some employers request a transcript during the interview process
• https://law.yale.edu/about-yale-law-school/offices-services/registrar/transcripts-verification-and-bar-forms
• Anticipate a 24-48 hour turn-around time
• Note that transcripts will not be released for those with holds on their accounts
• Pro Tip for 1Ls: Include in your cover letter the following sentence: “For your information, first-term courses for first-year students are graded on a credit/fail basis.”

Home > Student Works & Orgs > LLM Theses and Essays

LLM Theses and Essays

Submissions from 2013 2013.

Some Important Causes for Settlement in American Civil Litigation , Felipe Forte Cobo

Submissions from 2011 2011

TO REVEAL OR CONCEAL?—AN ISP’S DILEMMA, Presenting a New “Anonymous Public Concern Test” for Evaluating ISP Subpoenas in Online Defamation Suits , Cayce Myers

Submissions from 2008 2008

Infrastructure Development in Emerging Economies and the Roles Played by Multilateral Institutions , Amjad Ahasan Basheer

Universal Human Rights and Threat to International Peace and Security: The United Nations' Obligation to Intervene , Godfrey Mhlanga

Submissions from 2007 2007

Applicable Law Provisions in International Uniform Commercial Law Conventions , Paolo E. Conci

Licenses, Leases and Other Contractual Arrangements for the Exploration and Production of Petroleum A Comparative Study Between Nigeria and the United States , Omolara Elumelu

Judicial Review of International Commercial Arbitral Awards by National Courts in the United States and India , Aparna D. JUJJAVARAPU

Ethiopia's Sovereign Right of Access to the Sea under International Law , Abebe T. Kahsay

Comfort Women: Human Rights of Women from Then to Present , Jinyang Koh

Imports or Made-in-China: Comparison of Two Constitutional Cases in China and the United States , Xiao Li

Taxing Emotional Distress Recoveries: Does Murphy Show the Way? , Kaushal P. Mahaseth

The Land of the Free: Human Rights Violations at Immigration Detention Facilities in America , Caitlin J. Mitchel

International Legal Standards Governing the Use of Child Soldiers , Dorcas B. Mulira

Corporate Restrictions in Mexico and the United States , Dennis Rios

Regulating Transnational Corporation for Environmental Damage , Sonal Sahu

The Need for a Transnational Appellate Arbitral Review Body , Priya Sampath

A Consumption Tax versus a Federal Income Tax in the United States , Shelly-Ann R. Tomlinson

Financial Holding Company System and Relevant Legislation , Ye Wang

Submissions from 2006 2006

The Hamburg Rules , Kweku G. Ainuson

Tourism in Antarctica: History, Current Challenges and Proposals for Regulation , Juan Y. Harcha

Reconsidering the Medical Expert Witness System , Yunwei Jiang

A Comparative Study of the Legal Responses to Domestic Violence in the United States and Hungary , Adam Keri

Enforcement of Human Rights under Regional Mechanisms: a Comparative Analysis , Fekadeselassie F. Kidanemariam

Shareholders' Agreements in Close Corporations and Their Enforcement , Ricardo Molano Leon

A Comparative Study on the Trade Barriers Regulation and Foreign Trade Barriers Investigation Rules , Junrong Song

How to Deal with Multi-party Nominations of Arbitrators in International Commercial Arbitration - a Comparative Study of Appointment Procedures with Emphasis on U.S.-European Commerce between Private Entities , Marie-Beatrix Tupy

Balancing Regulations and Incentives for Foreign Direct Investment: a Case Study of Mexico and Kazakhstan , Dauren B. Tynybekov

Submissions from 2005 2005

The Legality of Humanitarian Intervention , Eric Adjei

A Comparative Assessment of U.S. Direct Investment in China and India , Kalpana Arjunan

Pre-contractual Obligations in France and the United States , Florence Caterini

Comparative Law: Alcohol, Drug Abuse & Jurisprudence from the United States to Korea , Hyun J. Cho

Commercial Speech in the United States and Europe , Oxana Valeryevna Gassy-Wright

Accountability of Transnational Corporations under International Standards , Lea Hanakova

Protection of "Persona" in the EU and in the US: a Comparative Analysis , Anna E. Helling

Income Tax Preferences to Foreign Investment in China since the Late 1970s , Xiaoyang Hou

Role of the World Bank and IMF in Issuing Loans to Russia: Responsibility, Tricks, Corruption, Mafia, and Important Use of Legal Enforcement , Elmira A. Makova

Governance and Responsibility of Multinational Enterprises: the Use of Codes of Conduct and Litigation to Change Multinational Enterprises' Behavior , Maria Fernanda Matach

Free Movement of Goods: a Comparative Analysis of the European Community Treaty and the North American Free Trade Agreement , Pedro A. Perichart

The Drafting Process For a Hague Convention on Jurisdiction and Judgements with Special Consideration of Intellectual Property and E-Commerce , Knut Woestehoff

The Drafting Process for a Hague Convention on Jurisdiction and Judgments with Special Consideration of Intellectual Property and E-commerce , Knut Woestehoff

Trade-related Environmental Measures and GATT: the Conflict between Trade Libralization and Environmental Protection , Fang Zheng

Submissions from 2004 2004

The Question of Non-trade Issues in the WTO from a Developing Country Perspective , Cecilia Alzamora

Cybercrime , Karissa Ayala

Protection of Children from Exploitation in West Africa: Illusion or Reality? , Afua Brown-Eyeson

Legal Structures of European Security and Defense Policy and War Powers under the U.S. Constitution , Heiko Buesing

U.S. Antidumping Law and Practices against Korean Exports , Jinwook Choi

Regulation of Hate Speech , Haiping Deng

The Institutional Framework of the European Union for the Conduct of Foreign Affairs , Frederic Eggermont

Comparison of New Zealand and United States Securities Markets through the Looking Glass of the Efficient Market Hypothesis , Carla Natalia Gargiulo

Private Party Participation in the World Trade Organizations , Taehyung Im

Issues Regarding the Most Effective Tool of U.S. Bankruptcy Law , Zeenat Kera

Contracts and Electronic Agents , Sabrina Kis

Historical Aspects of State Arbitration Policy , Elton R. Lanier

Regulating Non-territorial Commercial Environments in Territorial-based Legal Systems , Pedro Martin G. Less Andrade

Unilateral Refusals to Deal in Intellectual Property as Monopolistic Conduct , Bolanle Meshida

Comparative Analysis of Federal Income Tax Imposed on U.S. C Corporations and Russian Joint Stock Companies , Alina Y. Mitskevich

Legislation and Implementation of International Environmental Law by African Countries: a Case Study of Ghana , Brigitte L. Okley

The Challenges of Tax Collection in Developing Economies (with Special Reference to India) , Pramod K. Rai

Family Businesses, Choices of Legal Entity , Martina L. Rojo

Sound Record Producers' Rights and the Problem of Sound Recording Piracy , Stanislava N. Staykova

The Change of Corporate Governance Structure in the United States and Taiwan , Yifan Tseng

Fiduciary Duties of Directors in the Context of Going-private Transactions to the Minority Shareholders under Delaware Law , Yuan Wang

Recognition and Enforcement of International Commercial Arbitration Awards , Shouhua Yu

Submissions from 2003 2003

Interim Measures in International Commercial Arbitration: Past, Present and Future , Sandeep Adhipathi

Reservations, Human Rights Treaties in the 21st century: from Universality to Integrity , Pierrick Devidal

Technological Advances Leading to the Diminishing of Privacy Rights , Anabelle Maria D'Souza

Protection of Consumer Privacy in E-commerce , Choong L. Ha

Mergers and Acquisitions in Europe: Analysis of EC Competition Regulations , YoungJun Lee

Security Interests in Intellectual Property Rights: the Time Has Come for the Enactment of New Laws , Esteban Mazzucco

The Convergence of Trade and Environment and the Relative Role of WTO , Xiaoxi Meng

The Main Characteristics of State's Jurisdiction to Tax in International Dimension , Alfred Nizamiev

U.S. Foreign Direct Investment in Developing Countries: a Case Study of Malaysia, Mexico and South Africa , Abenaa A. Oti-Prempeh

Free movement of goods: A comparative analysis of the European community treaty and the north American free trade agreement , Pedro A. Perichart

A Historical View of Intellectual Property Rights in the Palestinian Territories , Ihab G. Samaan

Submissions from 2002 2002

An Analysis of the Duty to Negotiate in Good Faith: Precontractual Liability and Preliminary Agreement , Aarti Arunachalam

Multinational Corporations Facing the Varying Concepts of Jurisdiction : "forum non-conveniens", Contrasts between the Anglo-American and the European Law Systems , Sandrine Buttin

Minority Shareholders and Oppression in Close Corporations: Contracting as an Effective Protection Device , Marcella Machado Carneiro

Freedom of Speech, Cinema and Censorship: a Comparative Analysis of Issues of Freedom of Speech Violations as a Result of the Rating Regulation Authorities in the Motion Picture Industry in France and the United States , Stephanie Grenier

International Corporate Governance Practices and Their Implications on Investors , Namwandi Hamanyanga

Current Problems of International Taxation of Electronic Commerce , Nuran G. Kerimov

An End to the Political Question Doctrine in Korea?: A Comparative Analysis , Myeong-Sik Kim

The Evolution of the Law's Treatment of the Confessions of Mentally Disabled Criminal Suspects , John E. Knight

Public and Private Interests in Copyright Law: Creativity, Science and Democracy vs. Property and Market , Daryana I. Kotzeva

The Intra-enterprise Conspiracy Doctrine as Applied to Affiliated Corporations under Section 1 of the Sherman Act , Michael B. Menz

Privacy and Personal Data Protection in the Information Age: A Comparative Evaluation , Emeka B. Obasi

The Right to Freedom of Religion vis a vis Religious Intolerance in the New Millennium , Buihe P. Okenu

Conflict of Laws in the Enforcement of Foreign Awards and Foreign Judgments: the Public Policy Defense and Practice in U.S. Courts , Anupama Parameshwaran

Balancing Interests: Statute of Limitations and Repose in Medical Malpractice Cases , Laurie L. Paterson

A Comparison of Environmental Impact Assessment Process between the National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA) and the Basic Environmental Protection Act (BEPA) , V An Rhee

Offshore Investments , Ana Maura M. Safrin

Lawyers' Value in Mergers and Acquisitions under the New World of Multidisciplinary Practices , Yunling Wu

Submissions from 2001 2001

FAIR USE AND THE DIGITAL DISTRIBUTION OF MUSIC - RECORDING INDUSTRY ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA v. NAPSTER, INC. (A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF A RESTRAINT ON COPYRIGHT IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO) , MICHELLE LISA ALEXANDER

THE IMPACT OF MODERNIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT ON MUSLIM WOMEN IN EGYPT: A LEGAL PERSPECTIVE , MAZAHIR MUHAMMED ATA EL-SID

David vs. Goliath (2001): An Analysis of the OECD Harmful Tax Competition Policy , Truman Butler

Transfer Pricing: A Comparative Study of the French and U.S. Legal Systems , Valerie Ciancia

REFORMING CHINA'S PARTNERSHIP LAW: ACHIEVEMENTS, PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS , HONGBING FAN

SHOULD AN EFFECTIVE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT HAVE PRIMACY OR BE COMPLEMENTARY TO NATIONAL COURTS? AN ANALYSIS OF CONCURRENT JURISDICTION IN THE AD HOC TRIBUNALS AND THE ROME STATUTE , GODWIN YENIKA FONYE

Foreign Direct Investment in Colombia , Juliana Gomez

LEGALIZE IT? -OSP AND PEER-TO-PEER NETWORK LIABILITY FOR ONLINE MUSIC COPYRIGHT INFRINGEMENTS IN THE UNITED STATES AND GERMANY , CHRISTIAN NILS JOCHEN ENGELHARDT

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University of Bristol Law School

Law working papers series.

Welcome to the Bristol Law Working Papers Series. The series publishes a broad range of legal scholarship in all subject areas from members of the University of Bristol Law School. All papers are published electronically and available to download as pdf files.

Working papers

Exceptions and Regulatory Autonomy (PDF, 1,504kB) Author: Joshua Paine

This paper provides a comparative overview and analysis of exceptions commonly included in Preferential Trade Agreements.

Default Norms in Labour Law- From Private Right to Public Law (PDF, 1,525kB) Author: Alan Bogg

How far can the common law limit freedom of contract in employment contracts? This paper considers the limits of freedom of contract in relation to (i) contracting out of employment status; (ii) contracting out of implied terms. It argues that public policy can impose necessary limits on the employer's contractual powers.

An Analysis of the UK–Australia FTA’s Investment Chapter (PDF, 630kB) Author: Joshua Paine

A Kantian moral cosmopolitan approach to teaching professional legal ethics (PDF, 693kB) Author: Omar Madhloom

COVID-19 at Work: How risk is assessed & its consequences in England & Sweden (PDF, 837kB) A‌uthors: Peter Andersson and Tonia Novitz

Capturing the value of community fuel poverty alleviation (PDF, 1,891kB) Authors: Colin Nolden, Daniela Rossade and Peter Thomas

Bridging the Spaces in-between? The IWGB and Strategic Litigation (PDF, 522kB)  Author: Manoj Dias-Abey

View past papers

A New Approach to LSAT Writing Will Debut on July 30, 2024

By Susan Krinsky

As legal education curricula and the practice of law continue to change with the times, LSAC is innovating to provide a new writing assessment that responds to the evolving needs of the profession.

On July 30, a redesigned approach to the LSAT Writing section of the LSAT will make its debut as we open the 2024-2025 testing cycle, which begins with the August administration of the LSAT.

This new approach to the writing assessment will help law schools continue to make holistic admission decisions and help prospective law students better prepare for the writing they will do in law school and beyond – still without the need for any specialized skills, knowledge, or experience with legal concepts.

Since 1982, LSAT Writing prompts have been designed to assess logical reasoning in the context of argumentative writing. But legal education curricula, the legal profession, and the demands of legal practice continue to evolve. In our ongoing conversations with law schools and the legal profession, we hear consistently about the importance of strong analytical and argumentative writing skills and the need to better assess a student’s potential earlier in their academic journey.

Based on input from our member schools and other stakeholders in the legal profession, the new LSAT Writing section of the LSAT will be an even more effective tool for assessing the writing skills of individuals prior to law school. These changes will help schools better understand the writing capabilities of applicants for the purposes of their admission decisions. It will also enable law schools to better provide writing support for their students who need to strengthen their writing skills so they are better prepared for bar passage, finding employment, and practice.

This new approach aims to assess a test taker’s ability to construct a cogent argument based on a variety of evidentiary sources. Test takers will be presented with a debatable issue along with different perspectives that provide additional context. These perspectives, each of which is conveyed in a few sentences, are representative of a system of beliefs or values. Together, the perspectives illustrate competing ideologies and arguments around a particular issue. The test taker will then draft an argumentative essay in which they take a position, while addressing some of the arguments and ideas presented by the other perspectives.

The new argumentative writing task is designed to give test takers a clearer, more authentic writing purpose than the former “decision based” LSAT Writing prompt, which was more narrowly focused on pure logical reasoning. When test takers have an opportunity to construct an original thesis and defend it based on their own judgment and analytical evaluation, rather than following pre-ordained lines of reasoning, we can better assess a broader and more complex range of decision-making skills that writers engage in.

By adopting this design, we’re not only enabling individuals to have a more authentic voice in their argument, but we are also better positioned to evaluate the writer’s ability to employ various rhetorical techniques, evidentiary strategies, and other important aspects of argumentative writing.  

Given the additional reading required, we will be adding a short preparatory period to the LSAT Writing test, which test takers can use to organize their thoughts using guided prewriting analysis questions and to take notes using the digital notetaking tool provided in the testing environment. The questions are designed to help test takers analyze the various perspectives and generate productive ideas for their essay. Most test takers will have a total of 50 minutes – 15 minutes for prewriting analysis and 35 minutes for essay writing. Test takers with approved accommodations for additional time will have their time allocations adjusted accordingly.

To give test takers the opportunity to prepare, we have published a sample prompt as part of the free Official LSAT PrepTest library available in LawHub . Test takers can begin to familiarize themselves with the new approach and take practice LSAT Writing sessions in the official LSAT Writing environment.

We are also providing a sample of the new LSAT Writing prompt on LSAC.org . It should be noted that this LSAC.org sample is a “text only” version and that test functionality, including the timing function, is included in the practice environment in LawHub .

LSAT Writing has always been a part of the LSAT. Over the years, law schools have expressed the desire to make greater use of the writing portion in their holistic evaluations, so we moved to a digital assessment (instead of handwritten) so that schools could receive, read, and evaluate the students’ work. The changes we are announcing today will make the writing sample even more useful to schools in their evaluation and admission processes.

For the 2024-2025 testing cycle, LSAT Writing will remain an unscored part of the LSAT. Over the course of the 2024-2025 testing cycle, we will be analyzing data of the new LSAT Writing prompt to assess its validity and reliability with a long-term goal of providing a scored LSAT Writing assessment that schools may use in their holistic admission process.

We are excited to offer this new approach to LSAT Writing, starting August 1. We believe this new approach will allow test takers to demonstrate their writing skills even more effectively and will provide schools with even more insight into the strengths and potential of applicants.

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Susan L. Krinsky

Writing a DBQ Essay

Dbq essay generator.

If you’re a History major or enrolled in a History class, you may be appalled to know that your instructor has assigned your class to write a DBQ essay. You probably haven’t got the faintest idea what’s that supposed to mean. You don’t even know what DBQ stands for. If you’re stuck in a situation like this, you need to familiarize yourself with DBQ before your exams will take place. If your instructor has not taught you what DBQ is all about (and they probably have not since you are here!), here are some ways on how to prepare and write a DBQ essay. You may also see Descriptive Essay Examples .

• Academic Essay Examples
• Parts of an Essay

DBQ is known as document-based-question is an unusual type of a formatted timed essay on most AP History Exams; whatever your major is; AP US History, AP European History, and AP World History. This kind of essay is given during exams where students are required to analyze a certain and important event or issues that happened in history with the help of the provided sources or documents as evidence. You may also see Formal Essay Example .

Preparing for the DBQ essay

1. Familiarize yourself what to do when writing a DBQ essay.

During the exam, students are given 15 minutes to read the given prompt, analyze the documents and make some draft to write your reference essay . When the time is up, you are to start writing your essay. The actual writing process only takes around 15 minutes. The 15-minute mark may depend whether it covers only one prompt or more.

2. Take note of the prompt.

You need to determine what kind of evidence you will need to find in the documents or data that you have, based on the prompt question. Always circle or underline the specific society, organizations, or any groups of people being asked about, the time period, and the key concepts (such as the social, economic, or cultural issues that were prevalent at that time period) that are mentioned in the prompt. Here are some prompt DBQ essays samples that are likely to be asked for you to do the following: You may also see  Evaluation Essay Examples .

The sample prompts are discussions related to the Progressive Era in the United States of America. You are asked to do the following:

• Prompt 1: Analyze the extent to which a historical stereotype is true for a given period or concept. Example: Analyze the extent to which the Suffragettes were depicted as manly, uncivilized women during the 1890s to the 1920s.
• Prompt 2: Analyze multiple reasons that cause a particular movement to develop.

Example: Analyze the reasons that the Progressive Movement gained momentum during the 1890s to the 1920s in the United States.

• Prompt 3: Compare and contrast differing attitudes toward a concept or policy.

Example: Compare and contrast the differing attitudes towards women’s rights in America from 1890 to 1920.

• Prompt 4: Analyze the degree of truth in particular statement examples . Take a stance on the statement.

Example: Analyze the degree of truth in the statement: Women’s rights were a major part of the Progressive Era in America from the 1890s to the 1920s.

• Prompt 5: Analyze the impact of an event or concept on some part of American society.

Example: Analyze the impact of the Progressive era on American society in the 1890s to the 1920s.

• Prompt 6: Analyze the relative importance of a specific factor or factors on an event or concept.

Example: Analyze the importance of women’s roles in WWI to the passing of the 19th Amendment in 1920.

(All sample prompts are from www.wikihow.com)

3. Think up for more information about the societies, time period, or theme related to the given prompt.

This kind of information is what you may have learned in class or read about in your textbook. The additional information that you have will support your answers in your essay writing . You may use the documents provided to support your additional information. Additional information may be events in history, themes you studied about the time period you are writing about, revolutions, prominent people, and more. Take note of this information as they will be relevant to your essay later.

Here is an example from www.wikihow.com:

Think about the major career goals of the Progressive era, such as increased health and safety codes in factories, limiting child labor, more innovations in technology, the rise of the number of immigrants, the WWI, the rise of unions, and the monopoly of major men such as Rockefeller, Carnegie, etc.

The best thing to remember this for you to study in advance or take notes of this information when your professor discusses them during class.

4. Formulate your own opinion in the given subject. 

Determine what you can say about the given topic. What perspective do you have in mind during the issues in this era? What do you think is the importance of this issue? Is it worth studying it? What lessons did you obtain from these issues? These answers must be based from your own point of view, not others. You may also see  Comparative Essay Samples .

An example from www.wikihow.com:

What stands out about the Progressive era? What do you think about woman’s fight for suffrage?

5. Formulate your own assumption before you look at the documents. 

Of course, the prominent issues in a certain era happened because of a reason. While there is a given theory as an explanation why things happened, you could create your own theory based what are the other possible reasons why these events happened, what may be the hushed controversies during that time period, etc. When you’ve formulated these assumptions, you will be able to determine quickly how the given documents are effective in your essay. You may also see  Argumentative Essay Examples .

Here are some examples of assumptions from www.wikihow.com you could come up with based on the given prompt listed above.

• Prompt 1: Suffragettes were seen as unpatriotic, unfeminine women by the people who opposed the idea of women having the right to vote during the 1890s-1920s in the United States.
• Prompt 2: The Progressive movement gained power in the 1890s to 1920s since lots of American citizens were shocked by the poor living conditions and the economic climate in which trusts dominated the major sources of income in America.
• Prompt 3: In the United States; during the 1890s to the 1920s, some women joined the suffragettes to fight for the right to vote. However other women, particularly the elite class, snubbed at the suffragettes because they believed that women were meant to be housewives.
• Prompt 4: The Women’s Rights movement was a big part of the Progressive era from the years 1890 to 1920 in the United States.
• Prompt 5: The Progressive era majorly impacted American society drastically in terms of economics, politics, and culture during the 1890s to the 1920s.
• Prompt 6: Women were able to gain the right to vote, due to the fact that they made up most of the workforce during WWI.

6. Analyze the given documents

The documents that have been provided can include historical writings or publications like quotations, journal entries, letters, book excerpts, newspaper clippings, charts, maps, tables, photographs, illustrations, artifacts, cartoons, archived videos or as from the time period. Ask the question to yourself: You may also see  Persuasive Essay with Examples .

• What is the main idea of each document?
• How does a document relate to the prompt?
• How does the document will help your assumptions?

Jot down the notes you need from the given documents. This will help you formulate your essay easier instead of repeatedly scanning the documents during the writing examples . Pay some attention to the chronology of the documents. Look for any changes over time. Pay attention also to the contrasting information that was provided in the documents.

Example (from www. wikihow.com):

A letter about the methods used to obtain the right to vote sent from one suffragette to another is in contrast with an article in a newspaper depicting suffragettes as unpatriotic women who hoped to sabotage WWI for the United States.

You may also add additional information such as laws being passed, treaties between nations, letter from past rulers of every country, etc. to support your assumptions and proving your point. You may also see Last Minute Essay Example .

• The Bill of Rights. The Women’s Rights movement resulted in the establishment of the 19th Amendment.
•  A list made by suffragettes at a meeting about their strategies for getting the right to vote.

DBQ Sample Essay

Size: 13 MB

DBQ Essay Outline

Writing the essay

Your introduction should start about writing a sentence or two of the historical context about the time period you are writing about. You may also see Outline Essay Example .

The Progressive Era, which took place roughly from 1890-1920, was a time of  political, economic, and cultural reform in the United States. The Women’s Rights Movement was one of the movements that gained momentum during this time.

6. Write your assumption statements.

Follow these statements with a brief sentence that focuses on the topic or themes that will be covered in each following paragraph. You may also see Informative Essay Example .

During the 1890s to the 1920s in the United States, some women joined the suffragettes in their fight for the right to vote, while other women, particularly those of the elite class, looked down at the suffragettes because they believed that women were meant to stay in the home. In the following paragraphs, these two different reactions to suffragettes will be compared and contrasted.

7. Write your content paragraphs.

Your content paragraphs should be placed in a logical order. When referring to documents, use the title of the documents that you used. Each paragraph must have a topic sentence. This explains what your paragraphs are going to be about. Put as many paragraphs as this will help make sense for your prompt. You may also see Essay Examples in DOC .

List and analyze the documents you presented in the DBQ essay. Quotations that directly came from your documents must be done in a meaningful way. Remember to use quotes sparingly.

8. Add citations

If you ever mention a document that was the sources from your given documents; add parentheses and the number of the document at the end of the sentence.

• Women who were not suffragettes but still supported the movement wrote letters discussing their desire to help (doc 2).

9. Provide your conclusion 

Write your conclusions after you put the important points that support your analysis in your essay. Your conclusion will restate your assumptions and summarizes what you have proved in your essay. This is a crucial part of your essay as this will provide higher points in your analysis essay if your conclusion is adequate states what you have written in your essay.

10.Review your essay

Don’t forget to double check the dates and places you put in your essay by looking at the documents and make sure what you have written down match the information with the documents. The last thing you need is for your essay to be invalid since you put down wrong information just because you misspelled a name or forgot to put down the name of the place where the event took place. You may also see Free Essay Examples .

Now that you are familiar with writing a DBQ essay, it would not be too hard in your part to write a good and strong essay to land yourself a good grade. Not only you get to have a good grade, in the grueling process, you also learned some new knowledge. You may also see Reflective Essay Examples .

Text prompt

• Instructive
• Professional

Write a DBQ Essay analyzing the causes of the American Revolution.

Discuss the impacts of industrialization on society in a DBQ Essay.

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Clausewitz in Middle-Earth

Although the setting feels medieval, the War of the Ring is recognizably a modern war.

J. R. R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings is a story about war. In the foreword to the second edition, Tolkien explains, “It was during 1944 that, leaving the loose ends and perplexities of a war which it was my task to conduct, or at least report, I forced myself to tackle the journey of Frodo to Mordor.” Although it was largely written during the most terrible of modern wars, Tolkien feels medieval to us: it is all swords and horses, mythical creatures, and magical talismans.

A long time ago, Plato warned that appearance and reality are not always the same. Tolkien had extensive personal experience with modern warfare as a veteran of the Somme, and I think in important and defining ways that LotR is truly a story of modern war. To explain, I will show how it dovetails with On War , by Carl von Clausewitz (1780–1831). Clausewitz, a Prussian veteran of many Napoleonic battles — including, amazingly, both Borodino and Waterloo—penned the classic Western reflection on war.

Many of Clausewitz’s concepts operate in LotR . For example, Tolkien is very attentive to the role of geography in generating friction, and also to that other source of friction, the problem of knowledge. I will only explore the place of Clausewitz’s ideas about absolute war, the center of gravity, and the theatre of war. Together they reveal something surprising about what kind of war story is LotR .

Absolute War

On War is a classic of Enlightenment thinking. It belongs in the same genre as Adam Smith’s On the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations . Like Smith, inspired by the science of the period, Clausewitz enquires into the causality of combat power. One of his theses is that different political orders cause wars to vary in character. By profession, Tolkien was a professor of medieval literature, and early critics spoke magnificently of LotR as the last great medieval romance. Can an Enlightenment classic illuminate a tale of knights, ladies, and wizards?

About the Middle Ages, Clausewitz says, “cohesion in the state was never weaker or the individual so independent. It was the combination of these factors that gave medieval wars their special character.” In consequence, wars in the Middle Ages “were waged relatively quickly; not much time was wasted in the field; but their aim was usually to punish the enemy, not subdue him. When his cattle had been driven off and his castles burned, one could go home.”

Not the thieving of cattle, but the annihilation of the enemy figures in LotR . Universal slavery and destruction hang in the balance. Tolkien’s Huorns—a breed of quasi-sentient trees—hunt down and annihilate Saruman’s army while the Ents bring ruination to Orthanc, his fortress. Defeated, both Sauron and Saruman are vapourized by the gods, and the particles are scattered to the winds. Tolkien: “If the One Ring was actually unmade , annihilated, then its power would be dissolved, Sauron’s own being would be diminished to vanishing point, and he would be reduced to a shadow, a mere memory of malicious will.” Great forces are at work in LotR ; it is not a medieval epic, but modern.

Clausewitz argues that on account of the timidity of human nature, most war devolves into “observation war.” “Generally it is not a case in which two mutually destructive elements collide, but one of tension between two elements, separate for the time being, which discharge energy in discontinuous, minor shocks.” On the surface, the parley between Gandalf and the Mouth of Sauron puts the War of the Ring in the conventional military and political register of “minor shocks.”

After the victory of the allies at the Battle of the Pelennor Fields, heralds of the West demand to speak to Sauron. Before Sauron’s fastness at Mordor, they shout: “Justice shall be done upon him. For wrongfully he has made war upon Gondor and wrested its lands. Therefore the King of Gondor demands that he should atone for his evils.” This is a bluff, for though Sauron has lost a battle, he still has a vast army and eager allies. Full of bravado, his emissary, the Mouth of Sauron—an unknown man of great stature in the service of the Dark Lord—proffers terms: the forces of the West are to withdraw behind the River Anduin forsaking all lands to the east of the river. Communities to the west of the river must demilitarize and pay tribute to Sauron, but otherwise, they will be free to manage their own affairs.

This is conventional diplomacy after conflict, settling the fate of lands, which is always an issue in war. Clausewitz explains: “The object of the attack is the possession of the enemy’s territory.” Yet, not for a moment is Gandalf persuaded of the sincerity of the terms. He knows the outcome of losing the war is that Sauron “would be their tyrant and they his slaves.” LotR is about allies loving liberty and parrying an extractive war of conquest. Gandalf warns Frodo of the stakes: “Hobbits as miserable slaves would please him far more than hobbits happy and free.”

Gandalf knows there is no truck and barter with Sauron, a spirit of malice, who is wagering his all in the war. In the history of warfare, Sauron’s staking it all is rare. Clausewitz: “Even a royal commander had to use his army with a minimum of risk. If the army was pulverized, he could not raise another, and behind the army there was nothing.”

Clausewitz argues that it was Napoleon who inaugurated total resource war. He gives “the pure concept of war” a chilling moniker. Contrasting the way of war in the Seven Years’ War with the Napoleonic Wars, Clausewitz writes, “The generals opposing Frederick the Great were acting on instructions—which implied that caution was one of their distinguishing characteristics. But now the opponent of the Austrians and Prussians was—to put it bluntly—the God of War himself.” Sauron is not an allegory for Bonaparte, but their way of “absolute war” is the same. LotR is a depiction of the modern “pure concept of war.” This is why the war drains all from Frodo, the Ring-bearer. 

A Single Center of Gravity

Clausewitz recommends war planners identify “the ultimate substance of enemy strength,” to find the “single center of gravity” of the enemy’s combat power. For Sauron, this is the One Ring and its place of origin, the fires of Mount Doom. Gandalf and Lord Elrond are clear-eyed: the West’s only hope is to get the Ring to Mount Doom and have it thrown into its fires. Clausewitz approves: “In war, the subjugation of the enemy is the end, and the destruction of his fighting forces the means.” About this concept, Clausewitz writes, “A center of gravity is always found where the mass is concentrated most densely. It presents the most effective target for a blow; furthermore, the heaviest blow is that struck by the center of gravity. The same holds true in war.” The Ring is the center of gravity of Sauron’s army, and, for the allies, Frodo is most able to deliver the “heaviest blow.”

Sauron is not an allegory for Bonaparte, but their way of “absolute war” is the same.

The rootedness of Hobbits, twinned with Frodo’s patience and open, compassionate spirit, is “where the mass [of the West] is concentrated most densely.” Rootedness secures cohesion—a property under constant threat in war—and the moral forces so basic to combat power, according to Clausewitz. This is what leads Elves to dub Frodo “Elf-friend.” Frodo sets out on his quest for love of the Shire, but it is his gentleness towards Gollum, and his ability to grasp the higher things hinted at in Gandalf’s words about Sméagol, that gain final victory. It is a strategic advantage to the West that they know Sauron’s center of gravity, but he is ignorant of theirs. He only learns of the existence of the Shire late, once the die of the war is already cast, and he takes no time to learn its character, preoccupied as he is with finding the Ring’s whereabouts. The same ignorance undermines Saruman. He mocks Gandalf for his interest in the ways of the Shirelings, but it is Hobbits that trigger the Last March of the Ents.

In a letter, Tolkien says of Frodo:

Frodo undertook his quest out of love. … His real contract was only to do what he could, to try to find a way, and to go as far on the road as his strength of mind and body allowed. He did that. I do not myself see that the breaking of his mind and will under demonic pressure after torment was any more a moral failure than the breaking of his body would have been—say, by being strangled by Gollum, or crushed by a falling rock.

Clausewitz says all war is a series of duels and it is striking that Tolkien depicts the duel between Sauron and Frodo in terms of gravity. Long time bearer of the Ring, Gollum goes about on all fours—“Look at him! Like a nasty crawling spider on a wall. … Like some large prowling thing of insect-kind”—and Frodo is drawn to the ground, increasingly hunched over by the weight of the Ring about his neck. “In fact with every step towards the gates of Mordor Frodo felt the Ring on its chain about his neck grow more burdensome. He was now beginning to feel it as an actual weight dragging him earthwards.” Ultimately, Frodo will be prostrate on the ground, unable any longer to contend with the Dark Lord. This is when Sam, the gardener—expert in raising things from the soil—lifts Frodo up and carries him to Mount Doom.

Theatre of War

“In the days before Louis XIV, the movements of an army were not yet connected with the concept of a theatre of war.” Another modern military concept explains how Sauron has fortified Mordor. Clausewitz explains, “But the theater of war considered as a fighting force itself, with all its fortresses, its natural obstacles, and its sheer expanse of surface, is immobile. It may thus either be activated in stages. … In that case, every influence that an army’s theatre of war can exert to weaken the enemy will become effective.”

Mordor is a creeping hellscape of malignancy. Relaying the history of the Dead Marshes to Sam and Frodo, Gollum says, “But the Marshes have grown since then, swallowed up the graves; always creeping, creeping.” Sam almost gets snared: “He fell and came heavily on his hands, which sank deep into sticky ooze, so that his face was brought close to the surface of the dark mere. … Wrenching his hands out of the bog, he sprang back with a cry.” Closer to Mount Doom still, the party leaves behind them “the arid moors of the Noman-lands,” where “the air, as it seemed to them, grew harsh, and filled a bitter reek that caught their breath and parched their mouths.” Overwhelmed by disgust—“’I feel sick,’ said Sam. Frodo did not speak” as “the gasping pits and poisonous mounds grew hideously clear”—they stumble through Sauron’s vertigo-inducing “circumvallations:”

Frodo looked around in horror. … Even to the Mere of Dead Faces some haggard phantom of green spring would come; but here neither spring nor summer would ever come again. Here nothing lived, not even the leprous growths that feed on rottenness. The gasping pools were choked with ash and crawling muds, sickly white and grey, as if mountains had vomited the filth of their entrails upon the land. 

Sauron’s malignity has rendered the land disgusting, its “crawling muds” breaking up and disorienting the march of any who would enter the defenses of his theatre.

In Flanders Field s

Tolkien’s is a modern tale of war. It is an example of Clausewitz’s absolute war, where Sauron and Saruman wager all their resources. In consequence, defeat is total. Slain, Saruman’s spirit leaves his body and shapes into a mist: “For a moment it wavered, looking to the West; but out of the West came a cold wind, and it bent away, and with a sigh dissolved into nothing.” Frodo is emptied, also. “I have been too deeply hurt, Sam. I tried to save the Shire, and it has been saved, but not for me.”

In “the War of the Ring,” Frodo and the Shire were the West’s single center of gravity. As Frodo departs Middle-earth to find solace in the Blessed Realm, two tasks fall to Sam, the new Mayor of the Shire. In Frodo’s parting speech, Sam is told to be a reminder to others of the “Great Danger” of universal slavery that nearly came to pass. This will help Hobbits to “love their beloved land all the more.” Sam is also dubbed “the most famous gardener in history.” In a counter-image to Sauron’s theatre of war, Sam reseeds lands laid waste by war. The “bulwark of the West” is to be good, rich farmlands, a new Flanders. Perhaps from experience, in Tolkien’s vision, we hear an echo of Clausewitz’s idea that an active theatre of war makes an army’s retention of cohesion “more complicated.” The phenomenon of an active theatre of war, says Clausewitz is, “strongest in Flanders, Holstein, and other areas, where the land is cut up by numerous ditches, fences, hedges, and walls, and dotted with great numbers of single houses and clumps of tress.”

LotR is a compelling war story because it tracks Clausewitzian causality, making high-minded compassion the center of gravity and the greening of land the theatre of war. In Frodo and Sam, the spiritual and material forces basic to modern combat power combine.

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University of Minnesota Twin Cities

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The repository accepts submissions from University affiliates for digital archiving and access. Learn more about depositing to the repository and other services to manage your data.

Voices from the Gaps

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About Voices from the Gaps

University of Minnesota professors Toni McNaron (English) and Carol Miller (American Studies and American Indian Studies) founded VG/Voices from the Gaps in 1996 to uncover, highlight, and share the works of marginalized artists, predominately women writers of color living and working in North America. The pioneering site’s focus was largely educational, aimed at a diverse audience of students in secondary schools and institutions of higher education. Created just as Internet use exploded, VG reached a global readership and cultivated a collaborative and intercommunal group of scholars, students, educators, and women artists. Students, volunteers, and VG readers submitted the majority of the site’s entries, including author biographies, book reviews, academic essays, and interviews with women artists. Additionally, the site’s creators developed a robust selection of pedagogical materials to help instructors incorporate VG resources in secondary school and undergraduate classrooms.

Hosted by the English department at the University of Minnesota – Twin Cities, VG underwent two major redesigns during its 18 years as an active website. The first in 2004 expanded the materials included in the collection, incorporating multimedia works, such as interview video/audio files. This project also expanded the scope of the collection to feature women artists regardless of genre of work, race, minority status, or geographical location. The second project three years later updated the site’s design and navigation.

VG was decommissioned as an active website in 2014; the site’s content is now hosted by the University Digital Conservancy. The transition ensures VG will still be free and accessible over time, and enhances the collection’s visibility to search engines such as Google Scholar. Users of VG are still encouraged to use site content in their personal research or in the classroom, but the site is no longer able to accept submissions for new author pages, reviews/essays, or interviews.

If you wish to explore VG/Voices from the Gaps as it existed as an active website, it is archived on the UDC’s WebArchive page ( https://wayback.archive-it.org/org-121/*/http://voices.cla.umn.edu/ ).

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There are many ways to navigate the VG archives. If you know the author’s name, title of the work, time period in which the author lived, or the ethnicity with which the author identified, you may enter it into the search bar. All documents included in this site are full-text searchable, so searching for a term may yield results from several sub-collections.

If you wish to browse the collection, start with one of the sub-collections: Artist Pages, Essays & Reviews, Interviews, and Teaching Materials. These works are arranged reverse-alphabetically for the most part, and each page includes links to the authors of the document (VG volunteers, students, etc.), keywords, a link from which to download the file, and a suggested citation.

If you wish to browse more generally, we suggest beginning with the “Titles” or “Subjects” categories, found by clicking “Browse This Collection” at the top of each collection and sub-collection home page. These categories will allow you to browse alphabetically by document titles or by subject keywords. Choosing “Author” here allows you to see the author(s) of each document—not the woman writer featured in the document.

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