conclusion of paper making

Get science-backed answers as you write with Paperpal's Research feature

How to Write a Conclusion for Research Papers (with Examples)

The conclusion of a research paper is a crucial section that plays a significant role in the overall impact and effectiveness of your research paper. However, this is also the section that typically receives less attention compared to the introduction and the body of the paper. The conclusion serves to provide a concise summary of the key findings, their significance, their implications, and a sense of closure to the study. Discussing how can the findings be applied in real-world scenarios or inform policy, practice, or decision-making is especially valuable to practitioners and policymakers. The research paper conclusion also provides researchers with clear insights and valuable information for their own work, which they can then build on and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the field.

The research paper conclusion should explain the significance of your findings within the broader context of your field. It restates how your results contribute to the existing body of knowledge and whether they confirm or challenge existing theories or hypotheses. Also, by identifying unanswered questions or areas requiring further investigation, your awareness of the broader research landscape can be demonstrated.

Remember to tailor the research paper conclusion to the specific needs and interests of your intended audience, which may include researchers, practitioners, policymakers, or a combination of these.

Table of Contents

What is a conclusion in a research paper, summarizing conclusion, editorial conclusion, externalizing conclusion, importance of a good research paper conclusion, how to write a conclusion for your research paper, research paper conclusion examples.

• How to write a research paper conclusion with Paperpal? 

Frequently Asked Questions

A conclusion in a research paper is the final section where you summarize and wrap up your research, presenting the key findings and insights derived from your study. The research paper conclusion is not the place to introduce new information or data that was not discussed in the main body of the paper. When working on how to conclude a research paper, remember to stick to summarizing and interpreting existing content. The research paper conclusion serves the following purposes: 1

• Warn readers of the possible consequences of not attending to the problem.
• Recommend specific course(s) of action.
• Restate key ideas to drive home the ultimate point of your research paper.
• Provide a “take-home” message that you want the readers to remember about your study.

Types of conclusions for research papers

In research papers, the conclusion provides closure to the reader. The type of research paper conclusion you choose depends on the nature of your study, your goals, and your target audience. I provide you with three common types of conclusions:

A summarizing conclusion is the most common type of conclusion in research papers. It involves summarizing the main points, reiterating the research question, and restating the significance of the findings. This common type of research paper conclusion is used across different disciplines.

An editorial conclusion is less common but can be used in research papers that are focused on proposing or advocating for a particular viewpoint or policy. It involves presenting a strong editorial or opinion based on the research findings and offering recommendations or calls to action.

An externalizing conclusion is a type of conclusion that extends the research beyond the scope of the paper by suggesting potential future research directions or discussing the broader implications of the findings. This type of conclusion is often used in more theoretical or exploratory research papers.

Align your conclusion’s tone with the rest of your research paper. Start Writing with Paperpal Now!  

The conclusion in a research paper serves several important purposes:

• Offers Implications and Recommendations : Your research paper conclusion is an excellent place to discuss the broader implications of your research and suggest potential areas for further study. It’s also an opportunity to offer practical recommendations based on your findings.
• Provides Closure : A good research paper conclusion provides a sense of closure to your paper. It should leave the reader with a feeling that they have reached the end of a well-structured and thought-provoking research project.
• Leaves a Lasting Impression : Writing a well-crafted research paper conclusion leaves a lasting impression on your readers. It’s your final opportunity to leave them with a new idea, a call to action, or a memorable quote.

Writing a strong conclusion for your research paper is essential to leave a lasting impression on your readers. Here’s a step-by-step process to help you create and know what to put in the conclusion of a research paper: 2

• Research Statement : Begin your research paper conclusion by restating your research statement. This reminds the reader of the main point you’ve been trying to prove throughout your paper. Keep it concise and clear.
• Key Points : Summarize the main arguments and key points you’ve made in your paper. Avoid introducing new information in the research paper conclusion. Instead, provide a concise overview of what you’ve discussed in the body of your paper.
• Address the Research Questions : If your research paper is based on specific research questions or hypotheses, briefly address whether you’ve answered them or achieved your research goals. Discuss the significance of your findings in this context.
• Significance : Highlight the importance of your research and its relevance in the broader context. Explain why your findings matter and how they contribute to the existing knowledge in your field.
• Implications : Explore the practical or theoretical implications of your research. How might your findings impact future research, policy, or real-world applications? Consider the “so what?” question.
• Future Research : Offer suggestions for future research in your area. What questions or aspects remain unanswered or warrant further investigation? This shows that your work opens the door for future exploration.
• Closing Thought : Conclude your research paper conclusion with a thought-provoking or memorable statement. This can leave a lasting impression on your readers and wrap up your paper effectively. Avoid introducing new information or arguments here.
• Proofread and Revise : Carefully proofread your conclusion for grammar, spelling, and clarity. Ensure that your ideas flow smoothly and that your conclusion is coherent and well-structured.

Write your research paper conclusion 2x faster with Paperpal. Try it now!

Remember that a well-crafted research paper conclusion is a reflection of the strength of your research and your ability to communicate its significance effectively. It should leave a lasting impression on your readers and tie together all the threads of your paper. Now you know how to start the conclusion of a research paper and what elements to include to make it impactful, let’s look at a research paper conclusion sample.

How to write a research paper conclusion with Paperpal?

A research paper conclusion is not just a summary of your study, but a synthesis of the key findings that ties the research together and places it in a broader context. A research paper conclusion should be concise, typically around one paragraph in length. However, some complex topics may require a longer conclusion to ensure the reader is left with a clear understanding of the study’s significance. Paperpal, an AI writing assistant trusted by over 800,000 academics globally, can help you write a well-structured conclusion for your research paper. 

• Sign Up or Log In: Create a new Paperpal account or login with your details.  
• Navigate to Features : Once logged in, head over to the features’ side navigation pane. Click on Templates and you’ll find a suite of generative AI features to help you write better, faster.  
• Generate an outline: Under Templates, select ‘Outlines’. Choose ‘Research article’ as your document type.  
• Select your section: Since you’re focusing on the conclusion, select this section when prompted.  
• Choose your field of study: Identifying your field of study allows Paperpal to provide more targeted suggestions, ensuring the relevance of your conclusion to your specific area of research. 
• Provide a brief description of your study: Enter details about your research topic and findings. This information helps Paperpal generate a tailored outline that aligns with your paper’s content. 
• Generate the conclusion outline: After entering all necessary details, click on ‘generate’. Paperpal will then create a structured outline for your conclusion, to help you start writing and build upon the outline.  
• Write your conclusion: Use the generated outline to build your conclusion. The outline serves as a guide, ensuring you cover all critical aspects of a strong conclusion, from summarizing key findings to highlighting the research’s implications. 
• Refine and enhance: Paperpal’s ‘Make Academic’ feature can be particularly useful in the final stages. Select any paragraph of your conclusion and use this feature to elevate the academic tone, ensuring your writing is aligned to the academic journal standards. 

By following these steps, Paperpal not only simplifies the process of writing a research paper conclusion but also ensures it is impactful, concise, and aligned with academic standards. Sign up with Paperpal today and write your research paper conclusion 2x faster .  

The research paper conclusion is a crucial part of your paper as it provides the final opportunity to leave a strong impression on your readers. In the research paper conclusion, summarize the main points of your research paper by restating your research statement, highlighting the most important findings, addressing the research questions or objectives, explaining the broader context of the study, discussing the significance of your findings, providing recommendations if applicable, and emphasizing the takeaway message. The main purpose of the conclusion is to remind the reader of the main point or argument of your paper and to provide a clear and concise summary of the key findings and their implications. All these elements should feature on your list of what to put in the conclusion of a research paper to create a strong final statement for your work.

A strong conclusion is a critical component of a research paper, as it provides an opportunity to wrap up your arguments, reiterate your main points, and leave a lasting impression on your readers. Here are the key elements of a strong research paper conclusion: 1. Conciseness : A research paper conclusion should be concise and to the point. It should not introduce new information or ideas that were not discussed in the body of the paper. 2. Summarization : The research paper conclusion should be comprehensive enough to give the reader a clear understanding of the research’s main contributions. 3 . Relevance : Ensure that the information included in the research paper conclusion is directly relevant to the research paper’s main topic and objectives; avoid unnecessary details. 4 . Connection to the Introduction : A well-structured research paper conclusion often revisits the key points made in the introduction and shows how the research has addressed the initial questions or objectives. 5. Emphasis : Highlight the significance and implications of your research. Why is your study important? What are the broader implications or applications of your findings? 6 . Call to Action : Include a call to action or a recommendation for future research or action based on your findings.

The length of a research paper conclusion can vary depending on several factors, including the overall length of the paper, the complexity of the research, and the specific journal requirements. While there is no strict rule for the length of a conclusion, but it’s generally advisable to keep it relatively short. A typical research paper conclusion might be around 5-10% of the paper’s total length. For example, if your paper is 10 pages long, the conclusion might be roughly half a page to one page in length.

In general, you do not need to include citations in the research paper conclusion. Citations are typically reserved for the body of the paper to support your arguments and provide evidence for your claims. However, there may be some exceptions to this rule: 1. If you are drawing a direct quote or paraphrasing a specific source in your research paper conclusion, you should include a citation to give proper credit to the original author. 2. If your conclusion refers to or discusses specific research, data, or sources that are crucial to the overall argument, citations can be included to reinforce your conclusion’s validity.

The conclusion of a research paper serves several important purposes: 1. Summarize the Key Points 2. Reinforce the Main Argument 3. Provide Closure 4. Offer Insights or Implications 5. Engage the Reader. 6. Reflect on Limitations

Remember that the primary purpose of the research paper conclusion is to leave a lasting impression on the reader, reinforcing the key points and providing closure to your research. It’s often the last part of the paper that the reader will see, so it should be strong and well-crafted.

• Makar, G., Foltz, C., Lendner, M., & Vaccaro, A. R. (2018). How to write effective discussion and conclusion sections. Clinical spine surgery, 31(8), 345-346.
• Bunton, D. (2005). The structure of PhD conclusion chapters.  Journal of English for academic purposes ,  4 (3), 207-224.

Paperpal is a comprehensive AI writing toolkit that helps students and researchers achieve 2x the writing in half the time. It leverages 21+ years of STM experience and insights from millions of research articles to provide in-depth academic writing, language editing, and submission readiness support to help you write better, faster.  

Get accurate academic translations, rewriting support, grammar checks, vocabulary suggestions, and generative AI assistance that delivers human precision at machine speed. Try for free or upgrade to Paperpal Prime starting at US$19 a month to access premium features, including consistency, plagiarism, and 30+ submission readiness checks to help you succeed.  

Experience the future of academic writing – Sign up to Paperpal and start writing for free!  

Related Reads:

• 5 Reasons for Rejection After Peer Review
• Ethical Research Practices For Research with Human Subjects

7 Ways to Improve Your Academic Writing Process

• Paraphrasing in Academic Writing: Answering Top Author Queries

Preflight For Editorial Desk: The Perfect Hybrid (AI + Human) Assistance Against Compromised Manuscripts

You may also like, how to write a high-quality conference paper, academic editing: how to self-edit academic text with..., measuring academic success: definition & strategies for excellence, phd qualifying exam: tips for success , ai in education: it’s time to change the..., is it ethical to use ai-generated abstracts without..., what are journal guidelines on using generative ai..., quillbot review: features, pricing, and free alternatives, what is an academic paper types and elements , should you use ai tools like chatgpt for....

Conclusions

What this handout is about.

This handout will explain the functions of conclusions, offer strategies for writing effective ones, help you evaluate conclusions you’ve drafted, and suggest approaches to avoid.

About conclusions

Introductions and conclusions can be difficult to write, but they’re worth investing time in. They can have a significant influence on a reader’s experience of your paper.

Just as your introduction acts as a bridge that transports your readers from their own lives into the “place” of your analysis, your conclusion can provide a bridge to help your readers make the transition back to their daily lives. Such a conclusion will help them see why all your analysis and information should matter to them after they put the paper down.

Your conclusion is your chance to have the last word on the subject. The conclusion allows you to have the final say on the issues you have raised in your paper, to synthesize your thoughts, to demonstrate the importance of your ideas, and to propel your reader to a new view of the subject. It is also your opportunity to make a good final impression and to end on a positive note.

Your conclusion can go beyond the confines of the assignment. The conclusion pushes beyond the boundaries of the prompt and allows you to consider broader issues, make new connections, and elaborate on the significance of your findings.

Your conclusion should make your readers glad they read your paper. Your conclusion gives your reader something to take away that will help them see things differently or appreciate your topic in personally relevant ways. It can suggest broader implications that will not only interest your reader, but also enrich your reader’s life in some way. It is your gift to the reader.

Strategies for writing an effective conclusion

One or more of the following strategies may help you write an effective conclusion:

• Play the “So What” Game. If you’re stuck and feel like your conclusion isn’t saying anything new or interesting, ask a friend to read it with you. Whenever you make a statement from your conclusion, ask the friend to say, “So what?” or “Why should anybody care?” Then ponder that question and answer it. Here’s how it might go: You: Basically, I’m just saying that education was important to Douglass. Friend: So what? You: Well, it was important because it was a key to him feeling like a free and equal citizen. Friend: Why should anybody care? You: That’s important because plantation owners tried to keep slaves from being educated so that they could maintain control. When Douglass obtained an education, he undermined that control personally. You can also use this strategy on your own, asking yourself “So What?” as you develop your ideas or your draft.
• Return to the theme or themes in the introduction. This strategy brings the reader full circle. For example, if you begin by describing a scenario, you can end with the same scenario as proof that your essay is helpful in creating a new understanding. You may also refer to the introductory paragraph by using key words or parallel concepts and images that you also used in the introduction.
• Synthesize, don’t summarize. Include a brief summary of the paper’s main points, but don’t simply repeat things that were in your paper. Instead, show your reader how the points you made and the support and examples you used fit together. Pull it all together.
• Include a provocative insight or quotation from the research or reading you did for your paper.
• Propose a course of action, a solution to an issue, or questions for further study. This can redirect your reader’s thought process and help them to apply your info and ideas to their own life or to see the broader implications.
• Point to broader implications. For example, if your paper examines the Greensboro sit-ins or another event in the Civil Rights Movement, you could point out its impact on the Civil Rights Movement as a whole. A paper about the style of writer Virginia Woolf could point to her influence on other writers or on later feminists.

Strategies to avoid

• Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as “in conclusion,” “in summary,” or “in closing.” Although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as wooden and trite in writing.
• Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.
• Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion.
• Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any substantive changes.
• Making sentimental, emotional appeals that are out of character with the rest of an analytical paper.
• Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper.

Four kinds of ineffective conclusions

• The “That’s My Story and I’m Sticking to It” Conclusion. This conclusion just restates the thesis and is usually painfully short. It does not push the ideas forward. People write this kind of conclusion when they can’t think of anything else to say. Example: In conclusion, Frederick Douglass was, as we have seen, a pioneer in American education, proving that education was a major force for social change with regard to slavery.
• The “Sherlock Holmes” Conclusion. Sometimes writers will state the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion. You might be tempted to use this strategy if you don’t want to give everything away too early in your paper. You may think it would be more dramatic to keep the reader in the dark until the end and then “wow” them with your main idea, as in a Sherlock Holmes mystery. The reader, however, does not expect a mystery, but an analytical discussion of your topic in an academic style, with the main argument (thesis) stated up front. Example: (After a paper that lists numerous incidents from the book but never says what these incidents reveal about Douglass and his views on education): So, as the evidence above demonstrates, Douglass saw education as a way to undermine the slaveholders’ power and also an important step toward freedom.
• The “America the Beautiful”/”I Am Woman”/”We Shall Overcome” Conclusion. This kind of conclusion usually draws on emotion to make its appeal, but while this emotion and even sentimentality may be very heartfelt, it is usually out of character with the rest of an analytical paper. A more sophisticated commentary, rather than emotional praise, would be a more fitting tribute to the topic. Example: Because of the efforts of fine Americans like Frederick Douglass, countless others have seen the shining beacon of light that is education. His example was a torch that lit the way for others. Frederick Douglass was truly an American hero.
• The “Grab Bag” Conclusion. This kind of conclusion includes extra information that the writer found or thought of but couldn’t integrate into the main paper. You may find it hard to leave out details that you discovered after hours of research and thought, but adding random facts and bits of evidence at the end of an otherwise-well-organized essay can just create confusion. Example: In addition to being an educational pioneer, Frederick Douglass provides an interesting case study for masculinity in the American South. He also offers historians an interesting glimpse into slave resistance when he confronts Covey, the overseer. His relationships with female relatives reveal the importance of family in the slave community.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Douglass, Frederick. 1995. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Written by Himself. New York: Dover.

Hamilton College. n.d. “Conclusions.” Writing Center. Accessed June 14, 2019. https://www.hamilton.edu//academics/centers/writing/writing-resources/conclusions .

Holewa, Randa. 2004. “Strategies for Writing a Conclusion.” LEO: Literacy Education Online. Last updated February 19, 2004. https://leo.stcloudstate.edu/acadwrite/conclude.html.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

Make a Gift

• PRO Courses Guides New Tech Help Pro Expert Videos About wikiHow Pro Upgrade Sign In
• EDIT Edit this Article
• EXPLORE Tech Help Pro About Us Random Article Quizzes Request a New Article Community Dashboard This Or That Game Popular Categories Arts and Entertainment Artwork Books Movies Computers and Electronics Computers Phone Skills Technology Hacks Health Men's Health Mental Health Women's Health Relationships Dating Love Relationship Issues Hobbies and Crafts Crafts Drawing Games Education & Communication Communication Skills Personal Development Studying Personal Care and Style Fashion Hair Care Personal Hygiene Youth Personal Care School Stuff Dating All Categories Arts and Entertainment Finance and Business Home and Garden Relationship Quizzes Cars & Other Vehicles Food and Entertaining Personal Care and Style Sports and Fitness Computers and Electronics Health Pets and Animals Travel Education & Communication Hobbies and Crafts Philosophy and Religion Work World Family Life Holidays and Traditions Relationships Youth
• Browse Articles
• Learn Something New
• Quizzes Hot
• This Or That Game
• Train Your Brain
• Explore More
• Support wikiHow
• About wikiHow
• Log in / Sign up
• Education and Communications
• College University and Postgraduate
• Academic Writing
• Research Papers

How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper

Last Updated: May 8, 2024 Approved

This article was co-authored by Christopher Taylor, PhD . Christopher Taylor is an Adjunct Assistant Professor of English at Austin Community College in Texas. He received his PhD in English Literature and Medieval Studies from the University of Texas at Austin in 2014. wikiHow marks an article as reader-approved once it receives enough positive feedback. This article received 42 testimonials and 83% of readers who voted found it helpful, earning it our reader-approved status. This article has been viewed 2,259,372 times.

The conclusion of a research paper needs to summarize the content and purpose of the paper without seeming too wooden or dry. Every basic conclusion must share several key elements, but there are also several tactics you can play around with to craft a more effective conclusion and several you should avoid to prevent yourself from weakening your paper's conclusion. Here are some writing tips to keep in mind when creating a conclusion for your next research paper.

Sample Conclusions

Writing a basic conclusion.

• Do not spend a great amount of time or space restating your topic.
• A good research paper will make the importance of your topic apparent, so you do not need to write an elaborate defense of your topic in the conclusion.
• Usually a single sentence is all you need to restate your topic.
• An example would be if you were writing a paper on the epidemiology of infectious disease, you might say something like "Tuberculosis is a widespread infectious disease that affects millions of people worldwide every year."
• Yet another example from the humanities would be a paper about the Italian Renaissance: "The Italian Renaissance was an explosion of art and ideas centered around artists, writers, and thinkers in Florence."

• A thesis is a narrowed, focused view on the topic at hand.
• This statement should be rephrased from the thesis you included in your introduction. It should not be identical or too similar to the sentence you originally used.
• Try re-wording your thesis statement in a way that complements your summary of the topic of your paper in your first sentence of your conclusion.
• An example of a good thesis statement, going back to the paper on tuberculosis, would be "Tuberculosis is a widespread disease that affects millions of people worldwide every year. Due to the alarming rate of the spread of tuberculosis, particularly in poor countries, medical professionals are implementing new strategies for the diagnosis, treatment, and containment of this disease ."

• A good way to go about this is to re-read the topic sentence of each major paragraph or section in the body of your paper.
• Find a way to briefly restate each point mentioned in each topic sentence in your conclusion. Do not repeat any of the supporting details used within your body paragraphs.
• Under most circumstances, you should avoid writing new information in your conclusion. This is especially true if the information is vital to the argument or research presented in your paper.
• For example, in the TB paper you could summarize the information. "Tuberculosis is a widespread disease that affects millions of people worldwide. Due to the alarming rate of the spread of tuberculosis, particularly in poor countries, medical professionals are implementing new strategies for the diagnosis, treatment, and containment of this disease. In developing countries, such as those in Africa and Southeast Asia, the rate of TB infections is soaring. Crowded conditions, poor sanitation, and lack of access to medical care are all compounding factors in the spread of the disease. Medical experts, such as those from the World Health Organization are now starting campaigns to go into communities in developing countries and provide diagnostic testing and treatments. However, the treatments for TB are very harsh and have many side effects. This leads to patient non-compliance and spread of multi-drug resistant strains of the disease."

• Note that this is not needed for all research papers.
• If you already fully explained what the points in your paper mean or why they are significant, you do not need to go into them in much detail in your conclusion. Simply restating your thesis or the significance of your topic should suffice.
• It is always best practice to address important issues and fully explain your points in the body of your paper. The point of a conclusion to a research paper is to summarize your argument for the reader and, perhaps, to call the reader to action if needed.

• Note that a call for action is not essential to all conclusions. A research paper on literary criticism, for instance, is less likely to need a call for action than a paper on the effect that television has on toddlers and young children.
• A paper that is more likely to call readers to action is one that addresses a public or scientific need. Let's go back to our example of tuberculosis. This is a very serious disease that is spreading quickly and with antibiotic-resistant forms.
• A call to action in this research paper would be a follow-up statement that might be along the lines of "Despite new efforts to diagnose and contain the disease, more research is needed to develop new antibiotics that will treat the most resistant strains of tuberculosis and ease the side effects of current treatments."

• For example, if you are writing a history paper, then you might discuss how the historical topic you discussed matters today. If you are writing about a foreign country, then you might use the conclusion to discuss how the information you shared may help readers understand their own country.

Making Your Conclusion as Effective as Possible

• Since this sort of conclusion is so basic, you must aim to synthesize the information rather than merely summarizing it.
• Instead of merely repeating things you already said, rephrase your thesis and supporting points in a way that ties them all together.
• By doing so, you make your research paper seem like a "complete thought" rather than a collection of random and vaguely related ideas.

• Ask a question in your introduction. In your conclusion, restate the question and provide a direct answer.
• Write an anecdote or story in your introduction but do not share the ending. Instead, write the conclusion to the anecdote in the conclusion of your paper.
• For example, if you wanted to get more creative and put a more humanistic spin on a paper on tuberculosis, you might start your introduction with a story about a person with the disease, and refer to that story in your conclusion. For example, you could say something like this before you re-state your thesis in your conclusion: "Patient X was unable to complete the treatment for tuberculosis due to severe side effects and unfortunately succumbed to the disease."
• Use the same concepts and images introduced in your introduction in your conclusion. The images may or may not appear at other points throughout the research paper.

• Include enough information about your topic to back the statement up but do not get too carried away with excess detail.
• If your research did not provide you with a clear-cut answer to a question posed in your thesis, do not be afraid to indicate as much.
• Restate your initial hypothesis and indicate whether you still believe it or if the research you performed has begun swaying your opinion.
• Indicate that an answer may still exist and that further research could shed more light on the topic at hand.

• This may not be appropriate for all types of research papers. Most research papers, such as one on effective treatment for diseases, will have the information to make the case for a particular argument already in the paper.
• A good example of a paper that might ask a question of the reader in the ending is one about a social issue, such as poverty or government policy.
• Ask a question that will directly get at the heart or purpose of the paper. This question is often the same question, or some version of it, that you may have started with when you began your research.
• Make sure that the question can be answered by the evidence presented in your paper.
• If desired you can briefly summarize the answer after stating the question. You could also leave the question hanging for the reader to answer, though.

• Even without a call to action, you can still make a recommendation to your reader.
• For instance, if you are writing about a topic like third-world poverty, you can various ways for the reader to assist in the problem without necessarily calling for more research.
• Another example would be, in a paper about treatment for drug-resistant tuberculosis, you could suggest donating to the World Health Organization or research foundations that are developing new treatments for the disease.

Avoiding Common Pitfalls

• These sayings usually sound stiff, unnatural, or trite when used in writing.
• Moreover, using a phrase like "in conclusion" to begin your conclusion is a little too straightforward and tends to lead to a weak conclusion. A strong conclusion can stand on its own without being labeled as such.

• Always state the main argument or thesis in the introduction. A research paper is an analytical discussion of an academic topic, not a mystery novel.
• A good, effective research paper will allow your reader to follow your main argument from start to finish.
• This is why it is best practice to start your paper with an introduction that states your main argument and to end the paper with a conclusion that re-states your thesis for re-iteration.

• All significant information should be introduced in the body of the paper.
• Supporting evidence expands the topic of your paper by making it appear more detailed. A conclusion should narrow the topic to a more general point.
• A conclusion should only summarize what you have already stated in the body of your paper.
• You may suggest further research or a call to action, but you should not bring in any new evidence or facts in the conclusion.

• Most often, a shift in tone occurs when a research paper with an academic tone gives an emotional or sentimental conclusion.
• Even if the topic of the paper is of personal significance for you, you should not indicate as much in your paper.
• If you want to give your paper a more humanistic slant, you could start and end your paper with a story or anecdote that would give your topic more personal meaning to the reader.
• This tone should be consistent throughout the paper, however.

• Apologetic statements include phrases like "I may not be an expert" or "This is only my opinion."
• Statements like this can usually be avoided by refraining from writing in the first-person.
• Avoid any statements in the first-person. First-person is generally considered to be informal and does not fit with the formal tone of a research paper.

Community Q&A

You Might Also Like

• ↑ http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/724/04/
• ↑ http://www.crlsresearchguide.org/18_Writing_Conclusion.asp
• ↑ http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/PlanResearchPaper.html#conclusion
• ↑ http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/conclusions/
• ↑ http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/conclude.html

About This Article

To write a conclusion for a research paper, start by restating your thesis statement to remind your readers what your main topic is and bring everything full circle. Then, briefly summarize all of the main points you made throughout your paper, which will help remind your readers of everything they learned. You might also want to include a call to action if you think more research or work needs to be done on your topic by writing something like, "Despite efforts to contain the disease, more research is needed to develop antibiotics." Finally, end your conclusion by explaining the broader context of your topic and why your readers should care about it, which will help them understand why your topic is relevant and important. For tips from our Academic co-author, like how to avoid common pitfalls when writing your conclusion, scroll down! Did this summary help you? Yes No

• Send fan mail to authors

Reader Success Stories

Ummay Aimen

Sep 30, 2016

Did this article help you?

Oct 22, 2017

Sally Larrin

Mar 17, 2018

Maya Loeven

Jun 4, 2017

Sep 26, 2016

Featured Articles

Trending Articles

Watch Articles

• Terms of Use
• Privacy Policy
• Do Not Sell or Share My Info
• Not Selling Info

Get all the best how-tos!

Sign up for wikiHow's weekly email newsletter

• Walden University
• Faculty Portal

Writing a Paper: Conclusions

Writing a conclusion.

A conclusion is an important part of the paper; it provides closure for the reader while reminding the reader of the contents and importance of the paper. It accomplishes this by stepping back from the specifics in order to view the bigger picture of the document. In other words, it is reminding the reader of the main argument. For most course papers, it is usually one paragraph that simply and succinctly restates the main ideas and arguments, pulling everything together to help clarify the thesis of the paper. A conclusion does not introduce new ideas; instead, it should clarify the intent and importance of the paper. It can also suggest possible future research on the topic.

An Easy Checklist for Writing a Conclusion

It is important to remind the reader of the thesis of the paper so he is reminded of the argument and solutions you proposed.

Think of the main points as puzzle pieces, and the conclusion is where they all fit together to create a bigger picture. The reader should walk away with the bigger picture in mind.

Make sure that the paper places its findings in the context of real social change.

Make sure the reader has a distinct sense that the paper has come to an end. It is important to not leave the reader hanging. (You don’t want her to have flip-the-page syndrome, where the reader turns the page, expecting the paper to continue. The paper should naturally come to an end.)

No new ideas should be introduced in the conclusion. It is simply a review of the material that is already present in the paper. The only new idea would be the suggesting of a direction for future research.

Conclusion Example

As addressed in my analysis of recent research, the advantages of a later starting time for high school students significantly outweigh the disadvantages. A later starting time would allow teens more time to sleep--something that is important for their physical and mental health--and ultimately improve their academic performance and behavior. The added transportation costs that result from this change can be absorbed through energy savings. The beneficial effects on the students’ academic performance and behavior validate this decision, but its effect on student motivation is still unknown. I would encourage an in-depth look at the reactions of students to such a change. This sort of study would help determine the actual effects of a later start time on the time management and sleep habits of students.

Related Webinar

Didn't find what you need? Email us at [email protected] .

• Previous Page: Thesis Statements
• Next Page: Writer's Block
• Office of Student Disability Services

Walden Resources

Departments.

• Academic Residencies
• Academic Skills
• Career Planning and Development
• Customer Care Team
• Field Experience
• Military Services
• Student Success Advising
• Writing Skills

Centers and Offices

• Center for Social Change
• Office of Academic Support and Instructional Services
• Office of Degree Acceleration
• Office of Research and Doctoral Services
• Office of Student Affairs

Student Resources

• Doctoral Writing Assessment
• Form & Style Review
• Quick Answers
• ScholarWorks
• SKIL Courses and Workshops
• Walden Bookstore
• Walden Catalog & Student Handbook
• Student Safety/Title IX
• Legal & Consumer Information
• Website Terms and Conditions
• Cookie Policy
• Accessibility
• Accreditation
• State Authorization
• Net Price Calculator
• Contact Walden

Walden University is a member of Adtalem Global Education, Inc. www.adtalem.com Walden University is certified to operate by SCHEV © 2024 Walden University LLC. All rights reserved.

How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper

When you're wrapping up a research paper, the conclusion is like the grand finale of a fireworks show – it's your chance to leave a lasting impression. In this article, we'll break down the steps to help you write a winning research paper conclusion that not only recaps your main points but also ties everything together. Consider it the "So what?" moment – why should people care about your research? Our professional essay writers will guide you through making your conclusion strong, clear, and something that sticks with your readers long after they've put down your paper. So, let's dive in and ensure your research ends on a high note!

What Is a Conclusion in a Research Paper

In a research paper, the conclusion serves as the final segment, where you summarize the main points and findings of your study. It's not just a repetition of what you've already said but rather a chance to tie everything together and highlight the significance of your research. As you learn how to start a research paper , a good conclusion also often discusses the implications of your findings, suggests potential areas for further research, and leaves the reader with a lasting impression of the importance and relevance of your work in the broader context of the field. Essentially, it's your last opportunity to make a strong impact and leave your readers with a clear understanding of the significance of your research. Here’s a research paper conclusion example:

In conclusion, this research paper has navigated the intricacies of sustainable urban development, shedding light on the pivotal role of community engagement and innovative planning strategies. Through applying qualitative and quantitative research methods, we've uncovered valuable insights into the challenges and opportunities inherent in fostering environmentally friendly urban spaces. The implications of these findings extend beyond the confines of this study, emphasizing the imperative for continued exploration in the realms of urban planning and environmental sustainability. By emphasizing both the practical applications and theoretical contributions, this research underscores the significance of community involvement and forward-thinking strategies in shaping the future of urban landscapes. As cities evolve, incorporating these insights into planning and development practices will create resilient and harmonious urban environments.

Conclusion Outline for Research Paper

This outline for a research paper conclusion provides a structured framework to ensure that your ending effectively summarizes the key elements of your research paper and leaves a lasting impression on your readers. Adjust the content based on the specific requirements and focus of your research.

Restate the Thesis Statement

• Briefly restate the main thesis or research question.
• Emphasize the core objective or purpose of the study.

Summarize Key Findings

• Recap the main points and key findings from each section of the paper.
• Provide a concise overview of the research journey.

Discuss Implications

• Explore the broader implications of the research findings.
• Discuss how the results contribute to the existing body of knowledge in the field.

Address Limitations

• Acknowledge any limitations or constraints encountered during the research process.
• Explain how these limitations may impact the interpretation of the findings.

Suggest Areas for Future Research

• Propose potential directions for future studies related to the topic.
• Identify gaps in the current research that warrant further exploration.

Reaffirm Significance

• Reaffirm the importance and relevance of the research in the broader context.
• Highlight the practical applications or real-world implications of the study.

Concluding Statement

• Craft a strong, memorable closing statement that leaves a lasting impression.
• Sum up the overall impact of the research and its potential contribution to the field.

Study the full guide on how to make a research paper outline here, which will also specify the conclusion writing specifics to improve your general prowess.

Tips on How to Make a Conclusion in Research

Here are key considerations regarding a conclusion for research paper to not only recap the primary ideas in your work but also delve deeper to earn a higher grade:

• Provide a concise recap of your main research outcomes.
• Remind readers of your research goals and their accomplishments.
• Stick to summarizing existing content; refrain from adding new details.
• Emphasize why your research matters and its broader implications.
• Clearly explain the practical or theoretical impact of your findings.
• Prompt readers to reflect on how your research influences their perspective.
• Briefly discuss the robustness of your research methods.
• End with a suggestion for future research or a practical application.
• Transparently address any constraints or biases in your study.
• End on a powerful note, leaving a memorable impression on your readers.

For your inspiration, we’ve also prepared this research proposal example APA , which dwells on another important aspect of research writing.

How to Write a Research Paper Conclusion

As you finish your research paper, the conclusion takes center stage. In this section, we've got five practical tips for writing a conclusion for a research paper. We'll guide you through summarizing your key findings, revisiting your research goals, discussing the bigger picture, addressing any limitations, and ending on a powerful note. Think of it as your roadmap to creating a conclusion that not only wraps up your research but also leaves a lasting impact on your readers. Let's dive in and make sure your conclusion stands out for all the right reasons!

Synthesize Core Discoveries. Initiate your conclusion by synthesizing the essential discoveries of your research. Offer a succinct recapitulation of the primary points and outcomes you have elucidated in your paper. This aids in reinforcing the gravity of your work and reiterates the pivotal information you have presented.

Revisit Research Objectives. Revisit the research objectives or questions you outlined at the beginning of your paper. Assess whether you have successfully addressed these objectives and if your findings align with the initial goals of your research. This reflection helps tie your conclusion back to the purpose of your study.

Discuss Implications and Contributions. Discuss the broader implications of your research and its potential contributions to the field. Consider how your findings might impact future research, applications, or understanding of the subject matter. This demonstrates the significance of your work and places it within a larger context.

Address Limitations and Future Research. Acknowledge any limitations in your study, such as constraints in data collection or potential biases. Briefly discuss how these limitations might have affected your results. Additionally, suggest areas for future research that could build upon your work, addressing any unanswered questions or unexplored aspects. This demonstrates a thoughtful approach to your research.

End with a Strong Conclusion Statement. Conclude your research paper with a strong and memorable statement that reinforces the key message you want readers to take away. This could be a call to action, a proposal for further investigation, or a reflection on the broader significance of your findings. Leave your readers with a lasting impression that emphasizes the importance of your research. Remember that you can buy a research paper anytime if you lack time or get stuck in writer’s block.

Want to Enjoy the Benefits of Academic Freedom?

With our top-notch writers and 24/7 support, you can relax and focus on what really matters

Stylistic Devices to Use in a Conclusion

Discover distinctive stylistic insights that you can apply when writing a conclusion for a research paper:

• Rhetorical Questions. When using rhetorical questions, strategically place them to engage readers' minds. For instance, you might pose a question that prompts reflection on the broader implications of your findings, leaving your audience with something to ponder.
• Powerful Language. Incorporate strong language to convey a sense of conviction and importance. Choose words that resonate with the overall tone of your research and amplify the significance of your conclusions. This adds weight to your key messages.
• Repetitions. Repetitions can be employed to reinforce essential ideas. Reiterate key phrases or concepts in a way that emphasizes their importance without sounding redundant. This technique serves to drive home your main points.
• Anecdotes. Integrating anecdotes into your conclusion can provide a human touch. Share a brief and relevant story that connects with your research, making the information more relatable and memorable for your audience.
• Vivid Imagery. Lastly, use vivid imagery to paint a picture in the minds of your readers. Appeal to their senses by describing scenarios or outcomes related to your research. This creates a more immersive and lasting impression.

If you have a larger paper to write, for example a thesis, use our custom dissertation writing can help you in no time.

How to Make a Conclusion Logically Appealing

Knowing how to write a conclusion for a research paper that is logically appealing is important for leaving a lasting impression on your readers. Here are some tips to achieve this:

Logical Sequencing

• Present your conclusion in a structured manner, following the natural flow of your paper. Readers should effortlessly follow your thought process, making your conclusion more accessible and persuasive.

Reinforce Main Arguments

• Emphasize the core arguments and findings from your research. By reinforcing key points, you solidify your stance and provide a logical culmination to your paper.

Address Counterarguments

• Acknowledge and address potential counterarguments or limitations in your research. Demonstrate intellectual honesty and strengthen your conclusion by preemptively addressing potential doubts.

Connect with Introduction

• Revisit themes or concepts introduced in your introduction to create a cohesive narrative, allowing readers to trace the logical progression of your research from start to finish.

Propose Actionable Insights

• Suggest practical applications or recommendations based on your findings. This will add a forward-looking dimension, making your conclusion more relevant and compelling.

Highlight Significance

• Clearly articulate the broader implications of your research to convey the importance of your work and its potential impact on the field, making your conclusion logically compelling.

Are you ready to produce an A-grade assignment? If not, opt for a custom research paper from our skilled writers across various disciplines.

Avoid These Things When Writing a Research Paper Conclusion

As you write your conclusion of research paper, there’s a list of things professional writers don’t recommend doing. Consider these issues carefully:

• Repetition of Exact Phrases
• Repetitively using the same phrases or sentences from the main body. Repetition can make your conclusion seem redundant and less engaging.
• Overly Lengthy Summaries
• Providing excessively detailed summaries of each section of your paper. Readers may lose interest if the conclusion becomes too long and detailed.
• Unclear Connection to the Introduction
• Failing to connect the conclusion back to the introduction. A lack of continuity may make the paper feel disjointed.
• Adding New Arguments or Ideas
• Introducing new arguments or ideas that were not addressed in the body. This can confuse the reader and disrupt the coherence of your paper.
• Overuse of Complex Jargon
• Using excessively complex or technical language without clarification. Clear communication is essential in the conclusion, ensuring broad understanding.
• Apologizing or Undermining Confidence
• Apologizing for limitations or expressing doubt about your work. Maintain a confident tone; if limitations exist, present them objectively without undermining your research.
• Sweeping Generalizations
• Making overly broad or unsupported generalizations. Such statements can weaken the credibility of your conclusion.
• Neglecting the Significance
• Failing to emphasize the broader significance of your research. Readers need to understand why your findings matter in a larger context.
• Abrupt Endings
• Concluding abruptly without a strong closing statement. A powerful ending leaves a lasting impression; avoid a sudden or weak conclusion.

Research Paper Conclusion Example

That covers the essential aspects of summarizing a research paper. The only remaining step is to review the conclusion examples for research paper provided by our team.

Like our examples? Order our research proposal writing service to write paper according to your instructions to avoid plagiarizing and to keep your academic integrity strong.

Final Thoughts

In conclusion, the knowledge of how to write the conclusion of a research paper is pivotal for presenting your findings and leaving a lasting impression on your readers. By summarizing the key points, reiterating the significance of your research, and offering avenues for future exploration, you can create a conclusion that not only reinforces the value of your study but also encourages further academic discourse. Remember to balance brevity and completeness, ensuring your conclusion is concise yet comprehensive. Emphasizing the practical implications of your research and connecting it to the broader academic landscape will help solidify the impact of your work. Pay someone to write a research paper if you are having a hard time finishing your coursework on time.

Tired of Stressing Over Endless Essays and Deadlines? 

Let us take the load off your shoulders! Order your custom research paper today and experience the relief of knowing that your assignment is in expert hands

How To Write A Conclusion For A Research Paper?

What should the conclusion of a research paper contain, how to start a conclusion paragraph for a research paper.

Daniel Parker

is a seasoned educational writer focusing on scholarship guidance, research papers, and various forms of academic essays including reflective and narrative essays. His expertise also extends to detailed case studies. A scholar with a background in English Literature and Education, Daniel’s work on EssayPro blog aims to support students in achieving academic excellence and securing scholarships. His hobbies include reading classic literature and participating in academic forums.

is an expert in nursing and healthcare, with a strong background in history, law, and literature. Holding advanced degrees in nursing and public health, his analytical approach and comprehensive knowledge help students navigate complex topics. On EssayPro blog, Adam provides insightful articles on everything from historical analysis to the intricacies of healthcare policies. In his downtime, he enjoys historical documentaries and volunteering at local clinics.

Related Articles

How to write a strong conclusion for your research paper

Last updated

17 February 2024

Reviewed by

Writing a research paper is a chance to share your knowledge and hypothesis. It's an opportunity to demonstrate your many hours of research and prove your ability to write convincingly.

Ideally, by the end of your research paper, you'll have brought your readers on a journey to reach the conclusions you've pre-determined. However, if you don't stick the landing with a good conclusion, you'll risk losing your reader’s trust.

Writing a strong conclusion for your research paper involves a few important steps, including restating the thesis and summing up everything properly.

Find out what to include and what to avoid, so you can effectively demonstrate your understanding of the topic and prove your expertise.

• Why is a good conclusion important?

A good conclusion can cement your paper in the reader’s mind. Making a strong impression in your introduction can draw your readers in, but it's the conclusion that will inspire them.

• What to include in a research paper conclusion

There are a few specifics you should include in your research paper conclusion. Offer your readers some sense of urgency or consequence by pointing out why they should care about the topic you have covered. Discuss any common problems associated with your topic and provide suggestions as to how these problems can be solved or addressed.

The conclusion should include a restatement of your initial thesis. Thesis statements are strengthened after you’ve presented supporting evidence (as you will have done in the paper), so make a point to reintroduce it at the end.

Finally, recap the main points of your research paper, highlighting the key takeaways you want readers to remember. If you've made multiple points throughout the paper, refer to the ones with the strongest supporting evidence.

• Steps for writing a research paper conclusion

Many writers find the conclusion the most challenging part of any research project . By following these three steps, you'll be prepared to write a conclusion that is effective and concise.

• Step 1: Restate the problem

Always begin by restating the research problem in the conclusion of a research paper. This serves to remind the reader of your hypothesis and refresh them on the main point of the paper. 

When restating the problem, take care to avoid using exactly the same words you employed earlier in the paper.

• Step 2: Sum up the paper

After you've restated the problem, sum up the paper by revealing your overall findings. The method for this differs slightly, depending on whether you're crafting an argumentative paper or an empirical paper.

Argumentative paper: Restate your thesis and arguments

Argumentative papers involve introducing a thesis statement early on. In crafting the conclusion for an argumentative paper, always restate the thesis, outlining the way you've developed it throughout the entire paper.

It might be appropriate to mention any counterarguments in the conclusion, so you can demonstrate how your thesis is correct or how the data best supports your main points.

Empirical paper: Summarize research findings

Empirical papers break down a series of research questions. In your conclusion, discuss the findings your research revealed, including any information that surprised you.

Be clear about the conclusions you reached, and explain whether or not you expected to arrive at these particular ones.

• Step 3: Discuss the implications of your research

Argumentative papers and empirical papers also differ in this part of a research paper conclusion. Here are some tips on crafting conclusions for argumentative and empirical papers.

Argumentative paper: Powerful closing statement

In an argumentative paper, you'll have spent a great deal of time expressing the opinions you formed after doing a significant amount of research. Make a strong closing statement in your argumentative paper's conclusion to share the significance of your work.

You can outline the next steps through a bold call to action, or restate how powerful your ideas turned out to be.

Empirical paper: Directions for future research

Empirical papers are broader in scope. They usually cover a variety of aspects and can include several points of view.

To write a good conclusion for an empirical paper, suggest the type of research that could be done in the future, including methods for further investigation or outlining ways other researchers might proceed.

If you feel your research had any limitations, even if they were outside your control, you could mention these in your conclusion.

After you finish outlining your conclusion, ask someone to read it and offer feedback. In any research project you're especially close to, it can be hard to identify problem areas. Having a close friend or someone whose opinion you value read the research paper and provide honest feedback can be invaluable. Take note of any suggested edits and consider incorporating them into your paper if they make sense.

• Things to avoid in a research paper conclusion

Keep these aspects to avoid in mind as you're writing your conclusion and refer to them after you've created an outline.

Dry summary

Writing a memorable, succinct conclusion is arguably more important than a strong introduction. Take care to avoid just rephrasing your main points, and don't fall into the trap of repeating dry facts or citations.

You can provide a new perspective for your readers to think about or contextualize your research. Either way, make the conclusion vibrant and interesting, rather than a rote recitation of your research paper’s highlights.

Clichéd or generic phrasing

Your research paper conclusion should feel fresh and inspiring. Avoid generic phrases like "to sum up" or "in conclusion." These phrases tend to be overused, especially in an academic context and might turn your readers off.

The conclusion also isn't the time to introduce colloquial phrases or informal language. Retain a professional, confident tone consistent throughout your paper’s conclusion so it feels exciting and bold.

New data or evidence

While you should present strong data throughout your paper, the conclusion isn't the place to introduce new evidence. This is because readers are engaged in actively learning as they read through the body of your paper.

By the time they reach the conclusion, they will have formed an opinion one way or the other (hopefully in your favor!). Introducing new evidence in the conclusion will only serve to surprise or frustrate your reader.

Ignoring contradictory evidence

If your research reveals contradictory evidence, don't ignore it in the conclusion. This will damage your credibility as an expert and might even serve to highlight the contradictions.

Be as transparent as possible and admit to any shortcomings in your research, but don't dwell on them for too long.

Ambiguous or unclear resolutions

The point of a research paper conclusion is to provide closure and bring all your ideas together. You should wrap up any arguments you introduced in the paper and tie up any loose ends, while demonstrating why your research and data are strong.

Use direct language in your conclusion and avoid ambiguity. Even if some of the data and sources you cite are inconclusive or contradictory, note this in your conclusion to come across as confident and trustworthy.

• Examples of research paper conclusions

Your research paper should provide a compelling close to the paper as a whole, highlighting your research and hard work. While the conclusion should represent your unique style, these examples offer a starting point:

Ultimately, the data we examined all point to the same conclusion: Encouraging a good work-life balance improves employee productivity and benefits the company overall. The research suggests that when employees feel their personal lives are valued and respected by their employers, they are more likely to be productive when at work. In addition, company turnover tends to be reduced when employees have a balance between their personal and professional lives. While additional research is required to establish ways companies can support employees in creating a stronger work-life balance, it's clear the need is there.

Social media is a primary method of communication among young people. As we've seen in the data presented, most young people in high school use a variety of social media applications at least every hour, including Instagram and Facebook. While social media is an avenue for connection with peers, research increasingly suggests that social media use correlates with body image issues. Young girls with lower self-esteem tend to use social media more often than those who don't log onto social media apps every day. As new applications continue to gain popularity, and as more high school students are given smartphones, more research will be required to measure the effects of prolonged social media use.

What are the different kinds of research paper conclusions?

There are no formal types of research paper conclusions. Ultimately, the conclusion depends on the outline of your paper and the type of research you’re presenting. While some experts note that research papers can end with a new perspective or commentary, most papers should conclude with a combination of both. The most important aspect of a good research paper conclusion is that it accurately represents the body of the paper.

Can I present new arguments in my research paper conclusion?

Research paper conclusions are not the place to introduce new data or arguments. The body of your paper is where you should share research and insights, where the reader is actively absorbing the content. By the time a reader reaches the conclusion of the research paper, they should have formed their opinion. Introducing new arguments in the conclusion can take a reader by surprise, and not in a positive way. It might also serve to frustrate readers.

How long should a research paper conclusion be?

There's no set length for a research paper conclusion. However, it's a good idea not to run on too long, since conclusions are supposed to be succinct. A good rule of thumb is to keep your conclusion around 5 to 10 percent of the paper's total length. If your paper is 10 pages, try to keep your conclusion under one page.

What should I include in a research paper conclusion?

A good research paper conclusion should always include a sense of urgency, so the reader can see how and why the topic should matter to them. You can also note some recommended actions to help fix the problem and some obstacles they might encounter. A conclusion should also remind the reader of the thesis statement, along with the main points you covered in the paper. At the end of the conclusion, add a powerful closing statement that helps cement the paper in the mind of the reader.

Should you be using a customer insights hub?

Do you want to discover previous research faster?

Do you share your research findings with others?

Do you analyze research data?

Start for free today, add your research, and get to key insights faster

Editor’s picks

Last updated: 11 January 2024

Last updated: 15 January 2024

Last updated: 17 January 2024

Last updated: 12 May 2023

Last updated: 30 April 2024

Last updated: 18 May 2023

Last updated: 25 November 2023

Last updated: 13 May 2024

Latest articles

Related topics, .css-je19u9{-webkit-align-items:flex-end;-webkit-box-align:flex-end;-ms-flex-align:flex-end;align-items:flex-end;display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-flex-direction:row;-ms-flex-direction:row;flex-direction:row;-webkit-box-flex-wrap:wrap;-webkit-flex-wrap:wrap;-ms-flex-wrap:wrap;flex-wrap:wrap;-webkit-box-pack:center;-ms-flex-pack:center;-webkit-justify-content:center;justify-content:center;row-gap:0;text-align:center;max-width:671px;}@media (max-width: 1079px){.css-je19u9{max-width:400px;}.css-je19u9>span{white-space:pre;}}@media (max-width: 799px){.css-je19u9{max-width:400px;}.css-je19u9>span{white-space:pre;}} decide what to .css-1kiodld{max-height:56px;display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-align-items:center;-webkit-box-align:center;-ms-flex-align:center;align-items:center;}@media (max-width: 1079px){.css-1kiodld{display:none;}} build next, decide what to build next.

Users report unexpectedly high data usage, especially during streaming sessions.

Users find it hard to navigate from the home page to relevant playlists in the app.

It would be great to have a sleep timer feature, especially for bedtime listening.

I need better filters to find the songs or artists I’m looking for.

Log in or sign up

Get started for free

• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 9. The Conclusion
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

The conclusion is intended to help the reader understand why your research should matter to them after they have finished reading the paper. A conclusion is not merely a summary of the main topics covered or a re-statement of your research problem, but a synthesis of key points derived from the findings of your study and, if applicable, where you recommend new areas for future research. For most college-level research papers, two or three well-developed paragraphs is sufficient for a conclusion, although in some cases, more paragraphs may be required in describing the key findings and their significance.

Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Conclusions. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

Importance of a Good Conclusion

A well-written conclusion provides you with important opportunities to demonstrate to the reader your understanding of the research problem. These include:

• Presenting the last word on the issues you raised in your paper . Just as the introduction gives a first impression to your reader, the conclusion offers a chance to leave a lasting impression. Do this, for example, by highlighting key findings in your analysis that advance new understanding about the research problem, that are unusual or unexpected, or that have important implications applied to practice.
• Summarizing your thoughts and conveying the larger significance of your study . The conclusion is an opportunity to succinctly re-emphasize  your answer to the "So What?" question by placing the study within the context of how your research advances past research about the topic.
• Identifying how a gap in the literature has been addressed . The conclusion can be where you describe how a previously identified gap in the literature [first identified in your literature review section] has been addressed by your research and why this contribution is significant.
• Demonstrating the importance of your ideas . Don't be shy. The conclusion offers an opportunity to elaborate on the impact and significance of your findings. This is particularly important if your study approached examining the research problem from an unusual or innovative perspective.
• Introducing possible new or expanded ways of thinking about the research problem . This does not refer to introducing new information [which should be avoided], but to offer new insight and creative approaches for framing or contextualizing the research problem based on the results of your study.

Bunton, David. “The Structure of PhD Conclusion Chapters.” Journal of English for Academic Purposes 4 (July 2005): 207–224; Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Conclusion. San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008; Conclusions. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  General Rules

The general function of your paper's conclusion is to restate the main argument . It reminds the reader of the strengths of your main argument(s) and reiterates the most important evidence supporting those argument(s). Do this by clearly summarizing the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem you investigated in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found in the literature. However, make sure that your conclusion is not simply a repetitive summary of the findings. This reduces the impact of the argument(s) you have developed in your paper.

When writing the conclusion to your paper, follow these general rules:

• Present your conclusions in clear, concise language. Re-state the purpose of your study, then describe how your findings differ or support those of other studies and why [i.e., what were the unique, new, or crucial contributions your study made to the overall research about your topic?].
• Do not simply reiterate your findings or the discussion of your results. Provide a synthesis of arguments presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem and the overall objectives of your study.
• Indicate opportunities for future research if you haven't already done so in the discussion section of your paper. Highlighting the need for further research provides the reader with evidence that you have an in-depth awareness of the research problem but that further investigations should take place beyond the scope of your investigation.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is presented well:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize the argument for your reader.
• If, prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the end of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from the data [this is opposite of the introduction, which begins with general discussion of the context and ends with a detailed description of the research problem]. 

The conclusion also provides a place for you to persuasively and succinctly restate the research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with all the information about the topic . Depending on the discipline you are writing in, the concluding paragraph may contain your reflections on the evidence presented. However, the nature of being introspective about the research you have conducted will depend on the topic and whether your professor wants you to express your observations in this way. If asked to think introspectively about the topics, do not delve into idle speculation. Being introspective means looking within yourself as an author to try and understand an issue more deeply, not to guess at possible outcomes or make up scenarios not supported by the evidence.

II.  Developing a Compelling Conclusion

Although an effective conclusion needs to be clear and succinct, it does not need to be written passively or lack a compelling narrative. Strategies to help you move beyond merely summarizing the key points of your research paper may include any of the following:

• If your essay deals with a critical, contemporary problem, warn readers of the possible consequences of not attending to the problem proactively.
• Recommend a specific course or courses of action that, if adopted, could address a specific problem in practice or in the development of new knowledge leading to positive change.
• Cite a relevant quotation or expert opinion already noted in your paper in order to lend authority and support to the conclusion(s) you have reached [a good source would be from your literature review].
• Explain the consequences of your research in a way that elicits action or demonstrates urgency in seeking change.
• Restate a key statistic, fact, or visual image to emphasize the most important finding of your paper.
• If your discipline encourages personal reflection, illustrate your concluding point by drawing from your own life experiences.
• Return to an anecdote, an example, or a quotation that you presented in your introduction, but add further insight derived from the findings of your study; use your interpretation of results from your study to recast it in new or important ways.
• Provide a "take-home" message in the form of a succinct, declarative statement that you want the reader to remember about your study.

III. Problems to Avoid

Failure to be concise Your conclusion section should be concise and to the point. Conclusions that are too lengthy often have unnecessary information in them. The conclusion is not the place for details about your methodology or results. Although you should give a summary of what was learned from your research, this summary should be relatively brief, since the emphasis in the conclusion is on the implications, evaluations, insights, and other forms of analysis that you make. Strategies for writing concisely can be found here .

Failure to comment on larger, more significant issues In the introduction, your task was to move from the general [the field of study] to the specific [the research problem]. However, in the conclusion, your task is to move from a specific discussion [your research problem] back to a general discussion framed around the implications and significance of your findings [i.e., how your research contributes new understanding or fills an important gap in the literature]. In short, the conclusion is where you should place your research within a larger context [visualize your paper as an hourglass--start with a broad introduction and review of the literature, move to the specific analysis and discussion, conclude with a broad summary of the study's implications and significance].

Failure to reveal problems and negative results Negative aspects of the research process should never be ignored. These are problems, deficiencies, or challenges encountered during your study. They should be summarized as a way of qualifying your overall conclusions. If you encountered negative or unintended results [i.e., findings that are validated outside the research context in which they were generated], you must report them in the results section and discuss their implications in the discussion section of your paper. In the conclusion, use negative results as an opportunity to explain their possible significance and/or how they may form the basis for future research.

Failure to provide a clear summary of what was learned In order to be able to discuss how your research fits within your field of study [and possibly the world at large], you need to summarize briefly and succinctly how it contributes to new knowledge or a new understanding about the research problem. This element of your conclusion may be only a few sentences long.

Failure to match the objectives of your research Often research objectives in the social and behavioral sciences change while the research is being carried out. This is not a problem unless you forget to go back and refine the original objectives in your introduction. As these changes emerge they must be documented so that they accurately reflect what you were trying to accomplish in your research [not what you thought you might accomplish when you began].

Resist the urge to apologize If you've immersed yourself in studying the research problem, you presumably should know a good deal about it [perhaps even more than your professor!]. Nevertheless, by the time you have finished writing, you may be having some doubts about what you have produced. Repress those doubts! Don't undermine your authority as a researcher by saying something like, "This is just one approach to examining this problem; there may be other, much better approaches that...." The overall tone of your conclusion should convey confidence to the reader about the study's validity and realiability.

Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8; Concluding Paragraphs. College Writing Center at Meramec. St. Louis Community College; Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Conclusions. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Freedman, Leora  and Jerry Plotnick. Introductions and Conclusions. The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Leibensperger, Summer. Draft Your Conclusion. Academic Center, the University of Houston-Victoria, 2003; Make Your Last Words Count. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin Madison; Miquel, Fuster-Marquez and Carmen Gregori-Signes. “Chapter Six: ‘Last but Not Least:’ Writing the Conclusion of Your Paper.” In Writing an Applied Linguistics Thesis or Dissertation: A Guide to Presenting Empirical Research . John Bitchener, editor. (Basingstoke,UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), pp. 93-105; Tips for Writing a Good Conclusion. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Conclusion. San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008; Writing Conclusions. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Writing: Considering Structure and Organization. Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Writing Tip

Don't Belabor the Obvious!

Avoid phrases like "in conclusion...," "in summary...," or "in closing...." These phrases can be useful, even welcome, in oral presentations. But readers can see by the tell-tale section heading and number of pages remaining that they are reaching the end of your paper. You'll irritate your readers if you belabor the obvious.

Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8.

Another Writing Tip

New Insight, Not New Information!

Don't surprise the reader with new information in your conclusion that was never referenced anywhere else in the paper. This why the conclusion rarely has citations to sources. If you have new information to present, add it to the discussion or other appropriate section of the paper. Note that, although no new information is introduced, the conclusion, along with the discussion section, is where you offer your most "original" contributions in the paper; the conclusion is where you describe the value of your research, demonstrate that you understand the material that you’ve presented, and position your findings within the larger context of scholarship on the topic, including describing how your research contributes new insights to that scholarship.

Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8; Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.

• << Previous: Limitations of the Study
• Next: Appendices >>
• Last Updated: May 15, 2024 9:53 AM
• URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide

• Privacy Policy

Home » Research Paper Conclusion – Writing Guide and Examples

Research Paper Conclusion – Writing Guide and Examples

Table of Contents

Research Paper Conclusion

Definition:

A research paper conclusion is the final section of a research paper that summarizes the key findings, significance, and implications of the research. It is the writer’s opportunity to synthesize the information presented in the paper, draw conclusions, and make recommendations for future research or actions.

The conclusion should provide a clear and concise summary of the research paper, reiterating the research question or problem, the main results, and the significance of the findings. It should also discuss the limitations of the study and suggest areas for further research.

Parts of Research Paper Conclusion

The parts of a research paper conclusion typically include:

Restatement of the Thesis

The conclusion should begin by restating the thesis statement from the introduction in a different way. This helps to remind the reader of the main argument or purpose of the research.

Summary of Key Findings

The conclusion should summarize the main findings of the research, highlighting the most important results and conclusions. This section should be brief and to the point.

Implications and Significance

In this section, the researcher should explain the implications and significance of the research findings. This may include discussing the potential impact on the field or industry, highlighting new insights or knowledge gained, or pointing out areas for future research.

Limitations and Recommendations

It is important to acknowledge any limitations or weaknesses of the research and to make recommendations for how these could be addressed in future studies. This shows that the researcher is aware of the potential limitations of their work and is committed to improving the quality of research in their field.

Concluding Statement

The conclusion should end with a strong concluding statement that leaves a lasting impression on the reader. This could be a call to action, a recommendation for further research, or a final thought on the topic.

How to Write Research Paper Conclusion

Here are some steps you can follow to write an effective research paper conclusion:

• Restate the research problem or question: Begin by restating the research problem or question that you aimed to answer in your research. This will remind the reader of the purpose of your study.
• Summarize the main points: Summarize the key findings and results of your research. This can be done by highlighting the most important aspects of your research and the evidence that supports them.
• Discuss the implications: Discuss the implications of your findings for the research area and any potential applications of your research. You should also mention any limitations of your research that may affect the interpretation of your findings.
• Provide a conclusion : Provide a concise conclusion that summarizes the main points of your paper and emphasizes the significance of your research. This should be a strong and clear statement that leaves a lasting impression on the reader.
• Offer suggestions for future research: Lastly, offer suggestions for future research that could build on your findings and contribute to further advancements in the field.

Remember that the conclusion should be brief and to the point, while still effectively summarizing the key findings and implications of your research.

Example of Research Paper Conclusion

Here’s an example of a research paper conclusion:

Conclusion :

In conclusion, our study aimed to investigate the relationship between social media use and mental health among college students. Our findings suggest that there is a significant association between social media use and increased levels of anxiety and depression among college students. This highlights the need for increased awareness and education about the potential negative effects of social media use on mental health, particularly among college students.

Despite the limitations of our study, such as the small sample size and self-reported data, our findings have important implications for future research and practice. Future studies should aim to replicate our findings in larger, more diverse samples, and investigate the potential mechanisms underlying the association between social media use and mental health. In addition, interventions should be developed to promote healthy social media use among college students, such as mindfulness-based approaches and social media detox programs.

Overall, our study contributes to the growing body of research on the impact of social media on mental health, and highlights the importance of addressing this issue in the context of higher education. By raising awareness and promoting healthy social media use among college students, we can help to reduce the negative impact of social media on mental health and improve the well-being of young adults.

Purpose of Research Paper Conclusion

The purpose of a research paper conclusion is to provide a summary and synthesis of the key findings, significance, and implications of the research presented in the paper. The conclusion serves as the final opportunity for the writer to convey their message and leave a lasting impression on the reader.

The conclusion should restate the research problem or question, summarize the main results of the research, and explain their significance. It should also acknowledge the limitations of the study and suggest areas for future research or action.

Overall, the purpose of the conclusion is to provide a sense of closure to the research paper and to emphasize the importance of the research and its potential impact. It should leave the reader with a clear understanding of the main findings and why they matter. The conclusion serves as the writer’s opportunity to showcase their contribution to the field and to inspire further research and action.

When to Write Research Paper Conclusion

The conclusion of a research paper should be written after the body of the paper has been completed. It should not be written until the writer has thoroughly analyzed and interpreted their findings and has written a complete and cohesive discussion of the research.

Before writing the conclusion, the writer should review their research paper and consider the key points that they want to convey to the reader. They should also review the research question, hypotheses, and methodology to ensure that they have addressed all of the necessary components of the research.

Once the writer has a clear understanding of the main findings and their significance, they can begin writing the conclusion. The conclusion should be written in a clear and concise manner, and should reiterate the main points of the research while also providing insights and recommendations for future research or action.

Characteristics of Research Paper Conclusion

The characteristics of a research paper conclusion include:

• Clear and concise: The conclusion should be written in a clear and concise manner, summarizing the key findings and their significance.
• Comprehensive: The conclusion should address all of the main points of the research paper, including the research question or problem, the methodology, the main results, and their implications.
• Future-oriented : The conclusion should provide insights and recommendations for future research or action, based on the findings of the research.
• Impressive : The conclusion should leave a lasting impression on the reader, emphasizing the importance of the research and its potential impact.
• Objective : The conclusion should be based on the evidence presented in the research paper, and should avoid personal biases or opinions.
• Unique : The conclusion should be unique to the research paper and should not simply repeat information from the introduction or body of the paper.

Advantages of Research Paper Conclusion

The advantages of a research paper conclusion include:

• Summarizing the key findings : The conclusion provides a summary of the main findings of the research, making it easier for the reader to understand the key points of the study.
• Emphasizing the significance of the research: The conclusion emphasizes the importance of the research and its potential impact, making it more likely that readers will take the research seriously and consider its implications.
• Providing recommendations for future research or action : The conclusion suggests practical recommendations for future research or action, based on the findings of the study.
• Providing closure to the research paper : The conclusion provides a sense of closure to the research paper, tying together the different sections of the paper and leaving a lasting impression on the reader.
• Demonstrating the writer’s contribution to the field : The conclusion provides the writer with an opportunity to showcase their contribution to the field and to inspire further research and action.

Limitations of Research Paper Conclusion

While the conclusion of a research paper has many advantages, it also has some limitations that should be considered, including:

• I nability to address all aspects of the research: Due to the limited space available in the conclusion, it may not be possible to address all aspects of the research in detail.
• Subjectivity : While the conclusion should be objective, it may be influenced by the writer’s personal biases or opinions.
• Lack of new information: The conclusion should not introduce new information that has not been discussed in the body of the research paper.
• Lack of generalizability: The conclusions drawn from the research may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, limiting the generalizability of the study.
• Misinterpretation by the reader: The reader may misinterpret the conclusions drawn from the research, leading to a misunderstanding of the findings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

How to Cite Research Paper – All Formats and...

Data Collection – Methods Types and Examples

Delimitations in Research – Types, Examples and...

Research Paper Format – Types, Examples and...

Research Process – Steps, Examples and Tips

Research Design – Types, Methods and Examples

Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Conclusions

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Conclusions wrap up what you have been discussing in your paper. After moving from general to specific information in the introduction and body paragraphs, your conclusion should begin pulling back into more general information that restates the main points of your argument. Conclusions may also call for action or overview future possible research. The following outline may help you conclude your paper:

In a general way,

• Restate your topic and why it is important,
• Restate your thesis/claim,
• Address opposing viewpoints and explain why readers should align with your position,
• Call for action or overview future research possibilities.

Remember that once you accomplish these tasks, unless otherwise directed by your instructor, you are finished. Done. Complete. Don't try to bring in new points or end with a whiz bang(!) conclusion or try to solve world hunger in the final sentence of your conclusion. Simplicity is best for a clear, convincing message.

The preacher's maxim is one of the most effective formulas to follow for argument papers:

Tell what you're going to tell them (introduction).

Tell them (body).

Tell them what you told them (conclusion).

• Open access
• Published: 11 May 2024

Does a perceptual gap lead to actions against digital misinformation? A third-person effect study among medical students

• Zongya Li   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4479-5971 1 &
• Jun Yan   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9539-8466 1  

BMC Public Health volume  24 , Article number:  1291 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

255 Accesses

12 Altmetric

Metrics details

We are making progress in the fight against health-related misinformation, but mass participation and active engagement are far from adequate. Focusing on pre-professional medical students with above-average medical knowledge, our study examined whether and how third-person perceptions (TPP), which hypothesize that people tend to perceive media messages as having a greater effect on others than on themselves, would motivate their actions against misinformation.

We collected the cross-sectional data through a self-administered paper-and-pencil survey of 1,500 medical students in China during April 2022.

Structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis, showed that TPP was negatively associated with medical students’ actions against digital misinformation, including rebuttal of misinformation and promotion of corrective information. However, self-efficacy and collectivism served as positive predictors of both actions. Additionally, we found professional identification failed to play a significant role in influencing TPP, while digital misinformation self-efficacy was found to broaden the third-person perceptual gap and collectivism tended to reduce the perceptual bias significantly.

Conclusions

Our study contributes both to theory and practice. It extends the third-person effect theory by moving beyond the examination of restrictive actions and toward the exploration of corrective and promotional actions in the context of misinformation., It also lends a new perspective to the current efforts to counter digital misinformation; involving pre-professionals (in this case, medical students) in the fight.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

The widespread persistence of misinformation in the social media environment calls for effective strategies to mitigate the threat to our society [ 1 ]. Misinformation has received substantial scholarly attention in recent years [ 2 ], and solution-oriented explorations have long been a focus but the subject remains underexplored [ 3 ].

Health professionals, particularly physicians and nurses, are highly expected to play a role in the fight against misinformation as they serve as the most trusted information sources regarding medical topics [ 4 ]. However, some barriers, such as limitations regarding time and digital skills, greatly hinder their efforts to tackle misinformation on social media [ 5 ].

Medical students (i.e., college students majoring in health/medical science), in contrast to medical faculty, have a greater potential to become the major force in dealing with digital misinformation as they are not only equipped with basic medical knowledge but generally possess greater social media skills than the former generation [ 6 ]. Few studies, to our knowledge, have tried to explore the potential of these pre-professionals in tackling misinformation. Our research thus fills the gap by specifically exploring how these pre-professionals can be motivated to fight against digital health-related misinformation.

The third-person perception (TPP), which states that people tend to perceive media messages as having a greater effect on others than on themselves [ 7 ], has been found to play an important role in influencing individuals’ coping strategies related to misinformation. But empirical exploration from this line of studies has yielded contradictory results. Some studies revealed that individuals who perceived a greater negative influence of misinformation on others than on themselves were more likely to take corrective actions to debunk misinformation [ 8 ]. In contrast, some research found that stronger TPP reduced individuals’ willingness to engage in misinformation correction [ 9 , 10 ]. Such conflicting findings impel us to examine the association between the third-person perception and medical students’ corrective actions in response to misinformation, thus attempting to unveil the underlying mechanisms that promote or inhibit these pre-professionals’ engagement with misinformation.

Researchers have also identified several perceptual factors that motivate individuals’ actions against misinformation, especially efficacy-related concepts (e.g., self-efficacy and health literacy) and normative variables (e.g., subjective norms and perceived responsibility) [ 3 , 8 , 9 ]. However, most studies devote attention to the general population; little is known about whether and how these factors affect medical students’ intentions to deal with misinformation. We recruited Chinese medical students in order to study a social group that is mutually influenced by cultural norms (collectivism in Chinese society) and professional norms. Meanwhile, systematic education and training equip medical students with abundant clinical knowledge and good levels of eHealth literacy [ 5 ], which enable them to have potential efficacy in tackling misinformation. Our study thus aims to examine how medical students’ self-efficacy, cultural norms (i.e., collectivism) and professional norms (i.e., professional identification) impact their actions against misinformation.

Previous research has found self-efficacy to be a reliable moderator of optimistic bias, the tendency for individuals to consider themselves as less likely to experience negative events but more likely to experience positive events as compared to others [ 11 , 12 , 13 ]. As TPP is thought to be a product of optimistic bias, accordingly, self-efficacy should have the potential to influence the magnitude of third-person perception [ 14 , 15 ]. Meanwhile, scholars also suggest that the magnitude of TPP is influenced by social distance corollary [ 16 , 17 ]. Simply put, individuals tend to perceive those who are more socially distant from them to be more susceptible to the influence of undesirable media than those who are socially proximal [ 18 , 19 , 20 ]. From a social identity perspective, collectivism and professional identification might moderate the relative distance between oneself and others while the directions of such effects differ [ 21 , 22 ]. For example, collectivists tend to perceive a smaller social distance between self and others as “they are less likely to view themselves as distinct or unique from others” [ 23 ]. In contrast, individuals who are highly identified with their professional community (i.e., medical community) are more likely to perceive a larger social distance between in-group members (including themselves) and out-group members [ 24 ]. In this way, collectivism and professional identification might exert different effects on TPP. On this basis, this study aims to examine whether and how medical students’ perceptions of professional identity, self-efficacy and collectivism influence the magnitude of TPP and in turn influence their actions against misinformation.

Our study builds a model that reflects the theoretical linkages among self-efficacy, collectivism, professional identity, TPP, and actions against misinformation. The model, which clarifies the key antecedents of TPP and examines the mediating role of TPP, contribute to the third-person effect literature and offer practical contributions to countering digital misinformation.

Context of the study

As pre-professionals equipped with specialized knowledge and skills, medical students have been involved in efforts in health communication and promotion during the pandemic. For instance, thousands of medical students have participated in various volunteering activities in the fight against COVID-19, such as case data visualization [ 25 ], psychological counseling [ 26 ], and providing online consultations [ 27 ]. Due to the shortage of medical personnel and the burden of work, some medical schools also encouraged their students to participate in health care assistance in hospitals during the pandemic [ 28 , 29 ].

The flood of COVID-19 related misinformation has posed an additional threat to and burden on public health. We have an opportunity to address this issue and respond to the general public’s call for guidance from the medical community about COVID-19 by engaging medical students as a main force in the fight against coronavirus related misinformation.

Literature review

The third-person effect in the misinformation context.

Originally proposed by Davison [ 7 ], the third-person effect hypothesizes that people tend to perceive a greater effect of mass media on others than on themselves. Specifically, the TPE consists of two key components: the perceptual and the behavioral [ 16 ]. The perceptual component centers on the perceptual gap where individuals tend to perceive that others are more influenced by media messages than themselves. The behavioral component refers to the behavioral outcomes of the self-other perceptual gap in which people act in accordance with such perceptual asymmetry.

According to Perloff [ 30 ], the TPE is contingent upon situations. For instance, one general finding suggests that when media messages are considered socially undesirable, nonbeneficial, or involving risks, the TPE will get amplified [ 16 ]. Misinformation characterized as inaccurate, misleading, and even false, is regarded as undesirable in nature [ 31 ]. Based on this line of reasoning, we anticipate that people will tend to perceive that others would be more influenced by misinformation than themselves.

Recent studies also provide empirical evidence of the TPE in the context of misinformation [ 32 ]. For instance, an online survey of 511 Chinese respondents conducted by Liu and Huang [ 33 ] revealed that individuals would perceive others to be more vulnerable to the negative influence of COVID-19 digital disinformation. An examination of the TPE within a pre-professional group – the medical students–will allow our study to examine the TPE scholarship in a particular population in the context of tackling misinformation.

Why TPE occurs among medical students: a social identity perspective

Of the works that have provided explanations for the TPE, the well-known ones include self-enhancement [ 34 ], attributional bias [ 35 ], self-categorization theory [ 36 ], and the exposure hypothesis [ 19 ]. In this study, we argue for a social identity perspective as being an important explanation for third-person effects of misinformation among medical students [ 36 , 37 ].

The social identity explanation suggests that people define themselves in terms of their group memberships and seek to maintain a positive self-image through favoring the members of their own groups over members of an outgroup, which is also known as downward comparison [ 38 , 39 ]. In intergroup settings, the tendency to evaluate their ingroups more positively than the outgroups will lead to an ingroup bias [ 40 ]. Such an ingroup bias is typically described as a trigger for the third-person effect as individuals consider themselves and their group members superior and less vulnerable to undesirable media messages than are others and outgroup members [ 20 ].

In the context of our study, medical students highly identified with the medical community tend to maintain a positive social identity through an intergroup comparison that favors the ingroup and derogates the outgroup (i.e., the general public). It is likely that medical students consider themselves belonging to the medical community and thus are more knowledgeable and smarter than the general public in health-related topics, leading them to perceive the general public as more vulnerable to health-related misinformation than themselves. Accordingly, we propose the following hypothesis:

H1: As medical students’ identification with the medical community increases, the TPP concerning digital misinformation will become larger.

What influences the magnitude of TPP

Previous studies have demonstrated that the magnitude of the third-person perception is influenced by a host of factors including efficacy beliefs [ 3 ] and cultural differences in self-construal [ 22 , 23 ]. Self-construal is defined as “a constellation of thoughts, feelings, and actions concerning the relationship of the self to others, and the self as distinct from others” [ 41 ]. Markus and Kitayama (1991) identified two dimensions of self-construal: Independent and interdependent. Generally, collectivists hold an interdependent view of the self that emphasizes harmony, relatedness, and places importance on belonging, whereas individualists tend to have an independent view of the self and thus view themselves as distinct and unique from others [ 42 ]. Accordingly, cultural values such as collectivism-individualism should also play a role in shaping third-person perception due to the adjustment that people make of the self-other social identity distance [ 22 ].

Set in a Chinese context aiming to explore the potential of individual-level approaches to deal with misinformation, this study examines whether collectivism (the prevailing cultural value in China) and self-efficacy (an important determinant of ones’ behavioral intentions) would affect the magnitude of TPP concerning misinformation and how such impact in turn would influence their actions against misinformation.

The impact of self-efficacy on TPP

Bandura [ 43 ] refers to self-efficacy as one’s perceived capability to perform a desired action required to overcome barriers or manage challenging situations. He also suggests understanding self-efficacy as “a differentiated set of self-beliefs linked to distinct realms of functioning” [ 44 ]. That is to say, self-efficacy should be specifically conceptualized and operationalized in accordance with specific contexts, activities, and tasks [ 45 ]. In the context of digital misinformation, this study defines self-efficacy as one’s belief in his/her abilities to identify and verify misinformation within an affordance-bounded social media environment [ 3 ].

Previous studies have found self-efficacy to be a reliable moderator of biased optimism, which indicates that the more efficacious individuals consider themselves, the greater biased optimism will be invoked [ 12 , 23 , 46 ]. Even if self-efficacy deals only with one’s assessment of self in performing a task, it can still create the other-self perceptual gap; individuals who perceive a higher self-efficacy tend to believe that they are more capable of controlling a stressful or challenging situation [ 12 , 14 ]. As such, they are likely to consider themselves less vulnerable to negative events than are others [ 23 ]. That is, individuals with higher levels of self-efficacy tend to underestimate the impact of harmful messages on themselves, thereby widening the other-self perceptual gap.

In the context of fake news, which is closely related to misinformation, scholars have confirmed that fake news efficacy (i.e., a belief in one’s capability to evaluate fake news [ 3 ]) may lead to a larger third-person perception. Based upon previous research evidence, we thus propose the following hypothesis:

H2: As medical students’ digital misinformation self-efficacy increases, the TPP concerning digital misinformation will become larger.

The influence of collectivism on TPP

Originally conceptualized as a societal-level construct [ 47 ], collectivism reflects a culture that highlights the importance of collective goals over individual goals, defines the self in relation to the group, and places great emphasis on conformity, harmony and interdependence [ 48 ]. Some scholars propose to also examine cultural values at the individual level as culture is embedded within every individual and could vary significantly among individuals, further exerting effects on their perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors [ 49 ]. Corresponding to the construct at the macro-cultural level, micro-psychometric collectivism which reflects personality tendencies is characterized by an interdependent view of the self, a strong sense of other-orientation, and a great concern for the public good [ 50 ].

A few prior studies have indicated that collectivism might influence the magnitude of TPP. For instance, Lee and Tamborini [ 23 ] found that collectivism had a significant negative effect on the magnitude of TPP concerning Internet pornography. Such an impact can be understood in terms of biased optimism and social distance. Collectivists tend to view themselves as an integral part of a greater social whole and consider themselves less differentiated from others [ 51 ]. Collectivism thus would mitigate the third-person perception due to a smaller perceived social distance between individuals and other social members and a lower level of comparative optimism [ 22 , 23 ]. Based on this line of reasoning, we thus propose the following hypothesis:

H3: As medical students’ collectivism increases, the TPP concerning digital misinformation will become smaller.

Behavioral consequences of TPE in the misinformation context

The behavioral consequences trigged by TPE have been classified into three categories: restrictive actions refer to support for censorship or regulation of socially undesirable content such as pornography or violence on television [ 52 ]; corrective action is a specific type of behavior where people seek to voice their own opinions and correct the perceived harmful or ambiguous messages [ 53 ]; promotional actions target at media content with desirable influence, such as advocating for public service announcements [ 24 ]. In a word, restriction, correction and promotion are potential behavioral outcomes of TPE concerning messages with varying valence of social desirability [ 16 ].

Restrictive action as an outcome of third-person perceptual bias (i.e., the perceptual component of TPE positing that people tend to perceive media messages to have a greater impact on others than on themselves) has received substantial scholarly attention in past decades; scholars thus suggest that TPE scholarship to go beyond this tradition and move toward the exploration of corrective and promotional behaviors [ 16 , 24 ]. Moreover, individual-level corrective and promotional actions deserve more investigation specifically in the context of countering misinformation, as efforts from networked citizens have been documented as an important supplement beyond institutional regulations (e.g., drafting policy initiatives to counter misinformation) and platform-based measures (e.g., improving platform algorithms for detecting misinformation) [ 8 ].

In this study, corrective action specifically refers to individuals’ reactive behaviors that seek to rectify misinformation; these include such actions as debunking online misinformation by commenting, flagging, or reporting it [ 3 , 54 ]. Promotional action involves advancing correct information online, including in response to misinformation that has already been disseminated to the public [ 55 ].

The impact of TPP on corrective and promotional actions

Either paternalism theory [ 56 ] or the protective motivation theory [ 57 ] can act as an explanatory framework for behavioral outcomes triggered by third-person perception. According to these theories, people act upon TPP as they think themselves to know better and feel obligated to protect those who are more vulnerable to negative media influence [ 58 ]. That is, corrective and promotional actions as behavioral consequences of TPP might be driven by a protective concern for others and a positive sense of themselves.

To date, several empirical studies across contexts have examined the link between TPP and corrective actions. Koo et al. [ 8 ], for instance, found TPP was not only positively related to respondents’ willingness to correct misinformation propagated by others, but also was positively associated with their self-correction. Other studies suggest that TPP motivates individuals to engage in both online and offline corrective political participation [ 59 ], give a thumbs down to a biased story [ 60 ], and implement corrective behaviors concerning “problematic” TV reality shows [ 16 ]. Based on previous research evidence, we thus propose the following hypothesis:

H4: Medical students with higher degrees of TPP will report greater intentions to correct digital misinformation.

Compared to correction, promotional behavior has received less attention in the TPE research. Promotion commonly occurs in a situation where harmful messages have already been disseminated to the public and others appear to have been influenced by these messages, and it serves as a remedial action to amplify messages with positive influence which may in turn mitigate the detrimental effects of harmful messages [ 16 ].

Within this line of studies, however, empirical studies provide mixed findings. Wei and Golan [ 24 ] found a positive association between TPP of desirable political ads and promotional social media activism such as posting or linking the ad on their social media accounts. Sun et al. [ 16 ] found a negative association between TPP regarding clarity and community-connection public service announcements (PSAs) and promotion behaviors such as advocating for airing more PSAs in TV shows.

As promotional action is still underexplored in the TPE research, and existing evidence for the link between TPP and promotion is indeed mixed, we thus propose an exploratory research question:

RQ1: What is the relationship between TPP and medical students’ intentions to promote corrective information?

The impact of self-efficacy and collectivism on actions against misinformation

According to social cognitive theory, people with higher levels of self-efficacy tend to believe they are competent and capable and are more likely to execute specific actions [ 43 ]. Within the context of digital misinformation, individuals might become more willing to engage in misinformation correction if they have enough knowledge and confidence to evaluate information, and possess sufficient skills to verify information through digital tools and services [ 61 ].

Accordingly, we assumed medical students with higher levels of digital misinformation self-efficacy would be likely to become more active in the fight against misinformation.

H5: Medical students with higher levels of digital misinformation self-efficacy will report greater intentions to (a) correct misinformation and (b) promote corrective information on social media.

Social actions of collectivists are strongly guided by prevailing social norms, collective responsibilities, and common interest, goals, and obligations [ 48 ]. Hence, highly collectivistic individuals are more likely to self-sacrifice for group interests and are more oriented toward pro-social behaviors, such as adopting pro-environmental behaviors [ 62 ], sharing knowledge [ 23 ], and providing help for people in need [ 63 ].

Fighting against misinformation is also considered to comprise altruism, especially self-engaged corrective and promotional actions, as such actions are costly to the actor (i.e., taking up time and energy) but could benefit the general public [ 61 ]. Accordingly, we assume collectivism might play a role in prompting people to engage in reactive behaviors against misinformation.

It is also noted that collectivist values are deeply rooted in Chinese society and were especially strongly advocated during the outbreak of COVID-19 with an attempt to motivate prosocial behaviors [ 63 ]. Accordingly, we expected that the more the medical students were oriented toward collectivist values, the more likely they would feel personally obliged and normatively motivated to engage in misinformation correction. However, as empirical evidence was quite limited, we proposed exploratory research questions:

RQ2: Will medical students with higher levels of collectivism report greater intentions to (a) correct misinformation and (b) promote corrective information on social media?

The theoretical model

To integrate both the antecedents and consequences of TPP, we proposed a theoretical model (as shown in Fig. 1 ) to examine how professional identification, self-efficacy and collectivism would influence the magnitude of TPP, and how such impact would in turn influence medical students’ intentions to correct digital misinformation and promote corrective information. Thus, RQ3 was proposed:

RQ3: Will the TPP mediate the impact of self-efficacy and collectivism on medical students’ intentions to (a) correct misinformation, and (b) promote corrective information on social media? Fig. 1 The proposed theoretical model. DMSE = Digital Misinformation Self-efficacy; PIMC = Professional Identification with Medical Community; ICDM = Intention to Correct Digital Misinformation; IPCI = Intention to Promote Corrective Information Full size image

To examine the proposed hypotheses, this study utilized cross-sectional survey data from medical students in Tongji Medical College (TJMC) of China. TJMC is one of the birthplaces of Chinese modern medical education and among the first universities and colleges that offer eight-year curricula on clinical medicine. Further, TJMC is located in Wuhan, the epicenter of the initial COVID-19 outbreaks, thus its students might find the pandemic especially relevant – and threatening – to them.

The survey instrument was pilot tested using a convenience sample of 58 respondents, leading to minor refinements to a few items. Upon approval from the university’s Institutional Research Board (IRB), the formal investigation was launched in TJMC during April 2022. Given the challenges of reaching the whole target population and acquiring an appropriate sampling frame, this study employed purposive and convenience sampling.

We first contacted four school counselors as survey administrators through email with a letter explaining the objective of the study and requesting cooperation. All survey administrators were trained by the principal investigator to help with the data collection in four majors (i.e., basic medicine, clinical medicine, nursing, and public health). Paper-and-pencil questionnaires were distributed to students on regular weekly departmental meetings of each major as students in all grades (including undergraduates, master students, and doctoral students) were required to attend the meeting. The projected time of completion of the survey was approximately 10–15 min. The survey administrators indicated to students that participation was voluntary, their responses would remain confidential and secure, and the data would be used only for academic purposes. Though a total of 1,500 participants took the survey, 17 responses were excluded from the analysis as they failed the attention filters. Ultimately, a total of 1,483 surveys were deemed valid for analysis.

Of the 1,483 respondents, 624 (42.10%) were men and 855 (57.70%) were women, and four did not identify gender. The average age of the sample was 22.00 ( SD  = 2.54, ranging from 17 to 40). Regarding the distribution of respondents’ majors, 387 (26.10%) were in basic medicine, 390 (26.30%) in clinical medicine, 307 (20.70%) in nursing, and 399 (26.90%) in public health. In terms of university class, 1,041 (70.40%) were undergraduates, 291 (19.70%) were working on their master degrees, 146 (9.90%) were doctoral students, and five did not identify their class data.

Measurement of key variables

Perceived effects of digital misinformation on oneself and on others.

Three modified items adapted from previous research [ 33 , 64 ] were employed to measure perceived effects of digital misinformation on oneself. Respondents were asked to indicate to what extent they agreed with the following: (1) I am frequently concerned that the information about COVID-19 I read on social media might be false; (2) Misinformation on social media might misguide my understanding of the coronavirus; (3) Misinformation on social media might influence my decisions regarding COVID-19. The response categories used a 7-point scale, where 1 meant “strongly disagree” and 7 meant “strongly agree.” The measure of perceived effects of digital misinformation on others consisted of four parallel items with the same statement except replacing “I” and “my” with “the general others” and “their”. The three “self” items were averaged to create a measure of “perceived effects on oneself” ( M  = 3.98, SD  = 1.49, α  = 0.87). The three “others” items were also added and averaged to form an index of “perceived effects on others” ( M  = 4.62, SD  = 1.32, α  = 0.87).

The perceived self-other disparity (TPP)

TPP was derived by subtracting perceived effects on oneself from perceived effects on others.

Professional identification with medical community

Professional identification was measured using a three item, 7-point Likert-type scale (1 =  strongly disagree , 7 =  strongly agree ) adapted from previous studies [ 65 , 66 ] by asking respondents to indicate to what extent they agreed with the following statements: (1) I would be proud to be a medical staff member in the future; (2) I am committed to my major; and (3) I will be in an occupation that matches my current major. The three items were thus averaged to create a composite measure of professional identification ( M  = 5.34, SD  = 1.37, α  = 0.88).

Digital misinformation self-efficacy

Modified from previous studies [ 3 ], self-efficacy was measured with three items. Respondents were asked to indicate on a 7-point Linkert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) their agreement with the following: (1) I think I can identify misinformation relating to COVID-19 on social media by myself; (2) I know how to verify misinformation regarding COVID-19 by using digital tools such as Tencent Jiaozhen Footnote 1 and Piyao.org.cn Footnote 2 ; (3) I am confident in my ability to identify digital misinformation relating to COVID-19. A composite measure of self-efficacy was constructed by averaging the three items ( M  = 4.38, SD  = 1.14, α  = 0.77).

• Collectivism

Collectivism was measured using four items adapted from previous research [ 67 ], in which respondents were asked to indicate their agreement with the following statements on a 7-point scale, from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree): (1) Individuals should sacrifice self-interest for the group; (2) Group welfare is more important than individual rewards; (3) Group success is more important than individual success; and (4) Group loyalty should be encouraged even if individual goals suffer. Therefore, the average of the four items was used to create a composite index of collectivism ( M  = 4.47, SD  = 1.30, α  = 0.89).

Intention to correct digital misinformation

We used three items adapted from past research [ 68 ] to measure respondents’ intention to correct misinformation on social media. All items were scored on a 7-point scale from 1 (very unlikely) to 7 (very likely): (1) I will post a comment saying that the information is wrong; (2) I will message the person who posts the misinformation to tell him/her the post is wrong; (3) I will track the progress of social media platforms in dealing with the wrong post (i.e., whether it’s deleted or corrected). A composite measure of “intention to correct digital misinformation” was constructed by adding the three items and dividing by three ( M  = 3.39, SD  = 1.43, α  = 0.81).

Intention to promote corrective information

On a 7-point scale ranging from 1 (very unlikely) to 7 (very likely), respondents were asked to indicate their intentions to (1) Retweet the corrective information about coronavirus on my social media account; (2) Share the corrective information about coronavirus with others through Social Networking Services. The two items were averaged to create a composite measure of “intention to promote corrective information” ( M  = 4.60, SD  = 1.68, r  = 0.77).

Control variables

We included gender, age, class (1 = undergraduate degree; 2 = master degree; 3 = doctoral degree), and clinical internship (0 = none; 1 = less than 0.5 year; 2 = 0.5 to 1.5 years; 3 = 1.5 to 3 years; 4 = more than 3 years) as control variables in the analyses. Additionally, coronavirus-related information exposure (i.e., how frequently they were exposed to information about COVID-19 on Weibo, WeChat, and QQ) and misinformation exposure on social media (i.e., how frequently they were exposed to misinformation about COVID-19 on Weibo, WeChat, and QQ) were also assessed as control variables because previous studies [ 69 , 70 ] had found them relevant to misinformation-related behaviors. Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations between main variables were shown in Table 1 .

Statistical analysis

We ran confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in Mplus (version 7.4, Muthén & Muthén, 1998) to ensure the construct validity of the scales. To examine the associations between variables and tested our hypotheses, we performed structural equation modeling (SEM). Mplus was chosen over other SEM statistical package mainly because the current data set included some missing data, and the Mplus has its strength in handling missing data using full-information maximum likelihood imputation, which enabled us to include all available data [ 71 , 72 ]. Meanwhile, Mplus also shows great flexibility in modelling when simultaneously handling continuous, categorical, observed, and latent variables in a variety of models. Further, Mplus provides a variety of useful information in a concise manner [ 73 ].

Table 2 shows the model fit information for the measurement and structural models. Five latent variables were specified in the measurement model. To test the measurement model, we examined the values of Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability (CR), and average variance extracted (AVE) (Table 1 ). Cronbach’s alpha values ranged from 0.77 to 0.89. The CRs, which ranged from 0.78 to 0.91, exceeded the level of 0.70 recommended by Fornell (1982) and thus confirmed the internal consistency. The AVE estimates, which ranged from 0.54 to 0.78, exceeded the 0.50 lower limit recommended by Fornell and Larcker (1981), and thus supported convergent validity. All the square roots of AVE were greater than the off-diagonal correlations in the corresponding rows and columns [ 74 ]. Therefore, discriminant validity was assured. In a word, our measurement model showed sufficient convergence and discriminant validity.

Five model fit indices–the relative chi-square ratio (χ 2 / df ), the comparative fit index (CFI), the Tucker–Lewis index (TLI), the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and the standardized root-mean-square residual (SRMR) were used to assess the model. Specifically, the normed chi-square between 1 and 5 is acceptable [ 75 ]. TLI and CFI over 0.95 are considered acceptable, SRMR value less than 0.08 and RMSEA value less than 0.06 indicate good fit [ 76 ]. Based on these criteria, the model was found to have an acceptable fit to the data.

Figure 2 presents the results of our hypothesized model. H1 was rejected as professional identification failed to predict TPP ( β  = 0.06, p  > 0.05). Self-efficacy was positively associated with TPP ( β  = 0.14, p  < 0.001) while collectivism was negatively related to TPP ( β  = -0.10, p  < 0.01), lending support to H2 and H3.

Note. N  = 1,483. The coefficients of relationships between latent variables are standardized beta coefficients. Significant paths are indicated by solid line; non-significant paths are indicated by dotted lines. * p  < .05, ** p  < .01; *** p  < .001. DMSE = Digital Misinformation Self-efficacy; PIMC = Professional Identification with Medical Community; ICDM = Intention to Correct Digital Misinformation; IPCI = Intention to Promote Corrective Information

H4 posited that medical students with higher degrees of TPP would report greater intentions to correct digital misinformation. However, we found a negative association between TPP and intentions to correct misinformation ( β  = -0.12, p  < 0.001). H4 was thus rejected. Regarding RQ1, results revealed that TPP was negatively associated with intentions to promote corrective information ( β  = -0.08, p  < 0.05).

Further, our results supported H5 as we found that self-efficacy had a significant positive relationship with corrective intentions ( β  = 0.18, p  < 0.001) and promotional intentions ( β  = 0.32, p  < 0.001). Collectivism was also positively associated with intentions to correct misinformation ( β  = 0.14, p  < 0.001) and promote corrective information ( β  = 0.20, p  < 0.001), which answered RQ2.

Regarding RQ3 (see Table 3 ), TPP significantly mediated the relationship between self-efficacy and intentions to correct misinformation ( β  = -0.016), as well as the relationship between self-efficacy and intentions to promote corrective information ( β  = -0.011). However, TPP failed to mediate either the association between collectivism and corrective intentions ( β  = 0.011, ns ) or the association between collectivism and promotional intentions ( β  = 0.007, ns ).

Recent research has highlighted the role of health professionals and scientists in the fight against misinformation as they are considered knowledgeable, ethical, and reliable [ 5 , 77 ]. This study moved a step further by exploring the great potential of pre-professional medical students to tackle digital misinformation. Drawing on TPE theory, we investigated how medical students perceived the impact of digital misinformation, the influence of professional identification, self-efficacy and collectivism on these perceptions, and how these perceptions would in turn affect their actions against digital misinformation.

In line with prior studies [ 3 , 63 ], this research revealed that self-efficacy and collectivism played a significant role in influencing the magnitude of third-person perception, while professional identification had no significant impact on TPP. As shown in Table 1 , professional identification was positively associated with perceived effects of misinformation on oneself ( r  = 0.14, p  < 0.001) and on others ( r  = 0.20, p  < 0.001) simultaneously, which might result in a diminished TPP. What explains a shared or joint influence of professional identification on self and others? A potential explanation is that even medical staff had poor knowledge about the novel coronavirus during the initial outbreak [ 78 ]. Accordingly, identification with the medical community was insufficient to create an optimistic bias concerning identifying misinformation about COVID-19.

Our findings indicated that TPP was negatively associated with medical students’ intentions to correct misinformation and promote corrective information, which contradicted our hypotheses but was consistent with some previous TPP research conducted in the context of perceived risk [ 10 , 79 , 80 , 81 ]. For instance, Stavrositu and Kim (2014) found that increased TPP regarding cancer risk was negatively associated with behavioral intentions to engage in further cancer information search/exchange, as well as to adopt preventive lifestyle changes. Similarly, Wei et al. (2008) found concerning avian flu news that TPP negatively predicted the likelihood of engaging in actions such as seeking relevant information and getting vaccinated. In contrast, the perceived effects of avian flu news on oneself emerged as a positive predictor of intentions to take protective behavior.

Our study shows a similar pattern as perceived effects of misinformation on oneself were positively associated with intentions to correct misinformation ( r  = 0.06, p  < 0.05) and promote corrective information ( r  = 0.10, p  < 0.001, See Table 1 ). While the reasons for the behavioral patterns are rather elusive, such findings are indicative of human nature. When people perceive misinformation-related risk to be highly personally relevant, they do not take chances. However, when they perceive others to be more vulnerable than themselves, a set of sociopsychological dynamics such as self-defense mechanism, positive illusion, optimistic bias, and social comparison provide a restraint on people’s intention to engage in corrective and promotional actions against misinformation [ 81 ].

In addition to the indirect effects via TPP, our study also revealed that self-efficacy and collectivism serve as direct and powerful drivers of corrective and promotive actions. Consistent with previous literature [ 61 , 68 ], individuals will be more willing to engage in social corrections of misinformation if they possess enough knowledge, skills, abilities, and resources to identify misinformation, as correcting misinformation is difficult and their effort would not necessarily yield positive outcomes. Collectivists are also more likely to engage in misinformation correction as they are concerned for the public good and social benefits, aiming to protect vulnerable people from being misguided by misinformation [ 82 ].

This study offers some theoretical advancements. First, our study extends the TPE theory by moving beyond the examination of restrictive actions and toward the exploration of corrective and promotional actions in the context of misinformation. This exploratory investigation suggests that self-other asymmetry biased perception concerning misinformation did influence individuals’ actions against misinformation, but in an unexpected direction. The results also suggest that using TPP alone to predict behavioral outcomes was deficient as it only “focuses on differences between ‘self’ and ‘other’ while ignoring situations in which the ‘self’ and ‘other’ are jointly influenced” [ 83 ]. Future research, therefore, could provide a more sophisticated understanding of third-person effects on behavior by comparing the difference of perceived effects on oneself, perceived effects on others, and the third-person perception in the pattern and strength of the effects on behavioral outcomes.

Moreover, institutionalized corrective solutions such as government and platform regulation are non-exhaustive [ 84 , 85 ]; it thus becomes critical to tap the great potential of the crowd to engage in the fight against misinformation [ 8 ] while so far, research on the motivations underlying users’ active countering of misinformation has been scarce. The current paper helps bridge this gap by exploring the role of self-efficacy and collectivism in predicting medical students’ intentions to correct misinformation and promote corrective information. We found a parallel impact of the self-ability-related factor and the collective-responsibility-related factor on intentions to correct misinformation and promote corrective information. That is, in a collectivist society like China, cultivating a sense of collective responsibility and obligation in tackling misinformation (i.e., a persuasive story told with an emphasis on collective interests of social corrections of misinformation), in parallel with systematic medical education and digital literacy training (particularly, handling various fact-checking tools, acquiring Internet skills for information seeking and verification) would be effective methods to encourage medical students to engage in active countering behaviors against misinformation. Moreover, such an effective means of encouraging social corrections of misinformation might also be applied to the general public.

In practical terms, this study lends new perspectives to the current efforts in dealing with digital misinformation by involving pre-professionals (in this case, medical students) into the fight against misinformation. As digital natives, medical students usually spend more time online, have developed sophisticated digital competencies and are equipped with basic medical knowledge, thus possessing great potential in tackling digital misinformation. This study further sheds light on how to motivate medical students to become active in thwarting digital misinformation, which can help guide strategies to enlist pre-professionals to reduce the spread and threat of misinformation. For example, collectivism education in parallel with digital literacy training would help increase medical students’ sense of responsibility for and confidence in tackling misinformation, thus encouraging them to engage in active countering behaviors.

This study also has its limitations. First, the cross-sectional survey study did not allow us to justify causal claims. Granted, the proposed direction of causality in this study is in line with extant theorizing, but there is still a possibility of reverse causal relationships. To establish causality, experimental research or longitudinal studies would be more appropriate. Our second limitation lies in the generalizability of our findings. With the focus set on medical students in Chinese society, one should be cautious in generalizing the findings to other populations and cultures. For example, the effects of collectivism on actions against misinformation might differ in Eastern and Western cultures. Further studies would benefit from replication in diverse contexts and with diverse populations to increase the overall generalizability of our findings.

Drawing on TPE theory, our study revealed that TPP failed to motivate medical students to correct misinformation and promote corrective information. However, self-efficacy and collectivism were found to serve as direct and powerful drivers of corrective and promotive actions. Accordingly, in a collectivist society such as China’s, cultivating a sense of collective responsibility in tackling misinformation, in parallel with efficient personal efficacy interventions, would be effective methods to encourage medical students, even the general public, to actively engage in countering behaviors against misinformation.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Tencent Jiaozhen Fact-Checking Platform which comprises the Tencent information verification tool allow users to check information authenticity through keyword searching. The tool is updated on a daily basis and adopts a human-machine collaboration approach to discovering, verifying, and refuting rumors and false information. For refuting rumors, Tencent Jiaozhen publishes verified content on the homepage of Tencent's rumor-refuting platform, and uses algorithms to accurately push this content to users exposed to the relevant rumors through the WeChat dispelling assistant.

Piyao.org.cn is hosted by the Internet Illegal Information Reporting Center under the Office of the Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission and operated by Xinhuanet.com. The platform is a website that collects statements from Twitter-like services, news portals and China's biggest search engine, Baidu, to refute online rumors and expose the scams of phishing websites. It has integrated over 40 local rumor-refuting platforms and uses artificial intelligence to identify rumors.

Dhawan D, Bekalu M, Pinnamaneni R, McCloud R, Viswanath K. COVID-19 news and misinformation: do they matter for public health prevention? J Health Commun. 2021;26:799–808.

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Janmohamed K, Walter N, Nyhan K, Khoshnood K, Tucker JD, Sangngam N, et al. Interventions to mitigate COVID-19 misinformation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Health Commun. 2021;26:846–57.

Cheng Y, Chen ZF. The influence of presumed fake news influence: examining public support for corporate corrective response, media literacy interventions, and governmental regulation. Mass Commun Soc. 2020;23:705–29.

Article   Google Scholar  

Earnshaw VA, Katz IT. Educate, amplify, and focus to address COVID-19 misinformation. JAMA Health Forum. 2020;1:e200460.

Bautista JR, Zhang Y, Gwizdka J. Healthcare professionals’ acts of correcting health misinformation on social media. Int J Med Inf. 2021;148:104375.

O’Doherty D, Lougheed J, Hannigan A, Last J, Dromey M, O’Tuathaigh C, et al. Internet skills of medical faculty and students: is there a difference? BMC Med Educ. 2019;19:39.

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Davison WP. The third-person effect in communication.

Koo AZ-X, Su M-H, Lee S, Ahn S-Y, Rojas H. What motivates people to correct misinformation? Examining the effects of third-person perceptions and perceived norms. J Broadcast Electron Media. 2021;65:111–34.

Oktavianus J, Bautista JR. Motivating healthcare professionals to correct online health misinformation: the roles of subjective norm, third-person perception, and channel differences. Comput Hum Behav. 2023;147:107839.

Tang S, Willnat L, Zhang H. Fake news, information overload, and the third-person effect in China. Glob Media China. 2021;6:492–507.

Chapin J. Third-person perception and facebook. Int J Cyber Behav Psychol Learn. 2014;4:34–44.

Wei R, Lo V-H, Lu H-Y. Reconsidering the relationship between the third-person perception and optimistic bias. Commun Res. 2007;34:665–84.

Weinstein ND. Unrealistic optimism about future life events. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1980;39:802–20.

Liu X. Media exposure and third-person perception: the mediating role of social realism and proxy efficacy. 2021.

Yang J, Tian Y. “Others are more vulnerable to fake news than I Am”: Third-person effect of COVID-19 fake news on social media users. Comput Hum Behav. 2021;125:106950.

Sun Ye, Shen L, Pan Z. On the behavioral component of the third-person effect. Commun Res. 2008;35:257–78.

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Wei R, Lo V-H. The third-person effects of political attack ads in the 2004 U.S. Presidential election. Media Psychol. 2007;9:367–88.

Duck JM, Hogg MA, Terry DJ. Social identity and perceptions of media persuasion: are we always less influenced than others? 1. J Appl Soc Psychol. 1999;29(9):1879–99.

Eveland WP, Nathanson AI, Detenber BH, McLEOD DM. Rethinking the social distance corollary: perceived likelihood of expsoure and the third-person perception. Commun Res. 1999;26:275–302.

Scharrer E. Third-person perception and television violence: the role of out-group stereotyping in perceptions of susceptibility to effects. Commun Res. 2002;29:681–704.

Brownlee K, Halverson G, Chassie A. Multiple relationships: maintaining professional identity in rural social work practice. J Compar Soc Work. 2012;7(1):81–91.

Hogg MA, Reid SA. Social identity, self-categorization, and the communication of group norms. Commun Theory. 2006;16:7–30.

Lee B, Tamborini R. Third-person effect and internet pornography: the influence of collectivism and internet self-efficacy. J Commun. 2005;55:292–310.

Wei R, Golan G. Political advertising on social media in the 2012 presidential election: exploring the perceptual and behavioral components of the third-person effect. Electron News. 2013;7:223–42.

Dong E, Du H, Gardner L. An interactive web-based dashboard to track COVID-19 in real time. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020;20:533–4. 

Jun Z, Weili W, Xin Z, Wei Z. Recommended psychological crisis intervention response to the 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia outbreak in China: a model of West China Hospital. Precis Clin Med. 2020;3(1):3–8.

Shi Y, Zhang S, Fan L, Sun T. What motivates medical students to engage in volunteer behavior during the COVID-19 Outbreak? A large cross-sectional survey. Front Psychol. 2021;11:569765.

Passemard S, Faye A, Dubertret C, Peyre H, Vorms C, Boimare V, ... & Ricard JD. Covid-19 crisis impact on the next generation of physicians: a survey of 800 medical students. BMC Med Educ. 2021;21(1):1–13.

Tempski P, Arantes-Costa FM, Kobayasi R, Siqueira MA, Torsani MB, Amaro BQ, Martins MA. Medical students’ perceptions and motivations during the COVID-19 pandemic. PLoS ONE. 2021;16(3):e0248627.

Article   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Perloff RM. Third-person effect research 1983–1992: a review and synthesis. Int J Public Opin Res. 1993;5:167–84.

Chen L, Fu L. Let’s fight the infodemic: the third-person effect process of misinformation during public health emergencies. Internet Res. 2022;32:1357–77.

Lee T. How people perceive influence of fake news and why it matters. Commun Q. 2021;69:431–53.

Liu PL, Huang LV. Digital disinformation about COVID-19 and the third-person effect: examining the channel differences and negative emotional outcomes. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw. 2020;23:789–93.

Gunther AC, Thorson E. Perceived persuasive effects of product commercials and public service announcements: third-person effects in new domains. Commun Res. 1992;19:574–96.

Gunther A. What we think others think: cause and consequence in the third-person effect. Commun Res. 1991;18:355–72.

Reid SA, Hogg MA. A self-categorization explanation for the third-person effect. Hum Commun Res. 2005;31:129–61.

Cao B, Chen Z, Huang Y, Lo WH. Conflict between Mainland Chinese and Hong Kongers: a social identity perspective in explaining the hostile media phenomenon and the third-person effect. J Appl J Media Stud. 2014;3:225–40.

Google Scholar  

Tajfel H. Experimental studies of intergroup behaviour. In: Cognitive analysis of social behavior: Proceedings of the NATO advanced study Institute on “The cognitive analysis of socio-psychological processes”, Aix-enProvence, France, July 12–31, 1981 Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands; 1982. p. 227–46.

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Tajfel H, Turner JC, Austin WG, Worchel S. An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. Organizational Identity. 1979;56(65):9780203505984–9780203505916.

Crocker J, Luhtanen R. Collective self-esteem and ingroup bias. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1990;58(1).

Singelis TM. The measurement of independent and interdependent self-construals. Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 1994;20(5):580–91.

Cho H, Lee JS. The influence of self-efficacy, subjective norms, and risk perception on behavioral intentions related to the H1N1 flu pandemic: a comparison between K orea and the US. Asian J Soc Psychol. 2015;18(4):311–24.

Bandura A, Freeman WH, Lightsey R. Self-efficacy: the exercise of control. J Cogn Psychother. 1999;13:158–66.

Bandura A, Guide for constructing self-efficacy scales. Self-efficacy beliefs of adolescents. 2006;5(1):307–37.

Pajares F. Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Rev Educ Res. 1996;66:543–78.

Park JS, Ahn HY, Haley EJ. Optimistic bias, advertising skepticism, and consumer intentions for seeking information about the health risks of prescription medicine. Health Mark Q. 2017;34(2):81–96.

Hofstede GH. Culture’s consequences: comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications; 2001.

Triandis HC. Individualism and Collectivism. 1st ed. New York: Routledge; 2018.

Wated G, Sanchez JI. Managerial tolerance of nepotism: the effects of individualism-collectivism in a Latin American Context. J Bus Ethics. 2015;130:45–57.

Markus HR, Kitayama S. Culture and the self."Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation.

Sullivan D, Landau MJ, Kay AC, Rothschild ZK. Collectivism and the meaning of suffering. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2012;103:1023–39.

Lo V, Wei R. Third-person effect, gender, and pornography on the lnternet. J Broadcast Electron Media. 2002;46:13–33.

Barnidge M, Rojas H. Hostile media perceptions, presumed media influence, and political talk: expanding the corrective action hypothesis. Int J Public Opin Res. 2014;26:135–56.

Wintterlin F, Frischlich L, Boberg S, Schatto-Eckrodt T, Reer F, Quandt T. Corrective Actions in the information disorder. the role of presumed media influence and hostile media perceptions for the countering of distorted user-generated content. Polit Commun. 2021;38:773–91.

Wei R, Lo V-H, Lu H-Y, Hou H-Y. Examining multiple behavioral effects of third-person perception: evidence from the news about Fukushima nuclear crisis in Taiwan. Chin J Commun. 2015;8:95–111.

McLEOD DM, Eveland WP, Nathanson AI. Support for censorship of violent and misogynic rap lyrics: an analysis of the third-person effect. Commun Res. 1997;24:153–74.

Nathanson AI, Eveland WP Jr, Park H-S, Paul B. Perceived media influence and efficacy as predictors of caregivers’ protective behaviors. J Broadcast Electron Media. 2002;46:385–410.

McLeod DM, Detenber BH, Eveland WP. Behind the third-person effect: differentiating perceptual processes for self and other. J Commun. 2001;51:678–95.

Rojas H. “Corrective” Actions in the public sphere: how perceptions of media and media effects shape political behaviors. Int J Public Opin Res. 2010;22:343–63.

Chung M, Munno GJ, Moritz B. Triggering participation: exploring the effects of third-person and hostile media perceptions on online participation. Comput Hum Behav. 2015;53:452–61.

Zhao L, Yin J, Song Y. An exploration of rumor combating behavior on social media in the context of social crises. Comput Hum Behav. 2016;58:25–36.

Sherman DK, Updegraff JA, Handy MS, Eom K, Kim HS. Beliefs and social norms as precursors of environmental support: the joint influence of collectivism and socioeconomic status. Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 2022;48:463–77.

Zhu Y, Wei R, Lo V-H, Zhang M, Li Z. Collectivism and altruistic behavior: a third-person effect study of COVID-19 news among Wuhan residents. Glob Media China. 2021;6:476–91.

Yang F, Horning M. Reluctant to share: how third person perceptions of fake news discourage news readers from sharing “real news” on social media. Soc Media Soc. 2020;6:205630512095517.

Adams K, Hean S, Sturgis P, Clark JM. Investigating the factors influencing professional identity of first-year health and social care students. Learn Health Soc Care. 2006;5(2):55–68.

丁汉青, 王军. 冲突与协调: 传媒从业者后备军职业认同状况研究——以北京某高校新闻学院在校生为例. 国际新闻界, 2019;2 :113–131.

Yoo B, Donthu N, Lenartowicz T. Measuring Hofstede’s five dimensions of cultural values at the individual level: development and validation of. J Int Consum Mark. 2011;23(3-4):193-210.

Tandoc EC, Lim D, Ling R. Diffusion of disinformation: how social media users respond to fake news and why. Journalism. 2020;21:381–98.

Tan ASL, Lee C, Chae J. Exposure to health (Mis)Information: lagged effects on young adults’ health behaviors and potential pathways. J Commun. 2015.

Tully M, Bode L, Vraga EK. Mobilizing users: does exposure to misinformation and its correction affect users’ responses to a health misinformation post? Soc Media Soc. 2020;6:205630512097837.

Arbuckle JL. Full information estimation in the presence of in complete data. In: Marcoulides GA, Schumaker RE, editors. Advanced structural equation modeling: issues and techniques. Mahwah: Erlbaum; 1996. p. 243–77.

Narayanan A. A review of eight software packages for structural equation modeling. Am Stat. 2012;66(2):129–38.

Sakaria D, Maat SM, Mohd Matore MEE. Examining the optimal choice of SEM statistical software packages for sustainable mathematics education: a systematic review. Sustainability. 2023;15(4):3209.

Fornell C, Larcker DF. Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. J Mark Res. 1981;18(1):39–50.

Wheaton B, Muthen B, Alwin DF, Summers GF. Assessing reliability and stability in panel models. Sociol Methodol. 1977;8:84–136.

Hu LT, Bentler PM. Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Struct Equ Modeling. 1999;6(1):1–55.

Ho SS, Goh TJ, Leung YW. Let’s nab fake science news: predicting scientists’ support for interventions using the influence of presumed media influence model. Journalism. 2022;23:910–28.

Bhagavathula AS, Aldhaleei WA, Rahmani J, Mahabadi MA, Bandari DK. Knowledge and perceptions of COVID-19 among health care workers: cross-sectional study. JMIR Public Health Surveill. 2020;6(2):e19160.

Jung EH, Zhang L, Nekmat E. SNS usage and third-person effects in the risk perception of Zika virus among Singaporean Women. J Health Commun. 2020;25:736–44.

Stavrositu CD, Kim J. Social media metrics: third-person perceptions of health information. Comput Hum Behav. 2014;35:61–7.

Wei R, Lo VH, Lu HY. Third-person effects of health news: exploring the relationships among media exposure, presumed media influence, and behavioral intentions. Am Behav Sci. 2008;52:261–77.

Hong SC. Presumed effects of “fake news” on the global warming discussion in a cross-cultural context. Sustainability. 2020;12(5).

Neuwirth K, Frederick E. Extending the framework of third-, first-, and second-person effects. Mass Commun Soc. 2002;5:113–40.

Bastick Z. Would you notice if fake news changed your behavior? An experiment on the unconscious effects of disinformation. Comput Hum Behav. 2021;116.

Harff D, Bollen C, Schmuck D. Responses to social media influencers’ misinformation about COVID-19: a pre-registered multiple-exposure experiment. Media Psychol. 2022;25:831–50.

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank all participants and staff working for the project.

This work was supported by Humanities and Social Sciences Youth Foundation of the Ministry of Education of China (Grant No. 21YJC860012).

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Journalism and Information Communication School, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China

Zongya Li & Jun Yan

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

Zongya Li wrote the main manuscript and Jun yan collected the data. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jun Yan .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

This study was approved by the Medical Ethics Committee of Union Hospital Affiliated to Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (approval number: 2022S009). All the participants provided informed consent to engage in this research.

Consent for publication

The authors give their consent for the publication of identifiable details, which can include photograph(s) and/or videos and/or case history and/or details within the manuscript to be published in the BMC Public Health.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Li, Z., Yan, J. Does a perceptual gap lead to actions against digital misinformation? A third-person effect study among medical students. BMC Public Health 24 , 1291 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18763-9

Download citation

Received : 08 December 2023

Accepted : 02 May 2024

Published : 11 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18763-9

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Digital misinformation
• Third-person perception
• Pre-professionals
• Professional identification

BMC Public Health

ISSN: 1471-2458

• Submission enquiries: [email protected]
• General enquiries: [email protected]

Cultural Relativity and Acceptance of Embryonic Stem Cell Research

Article sidebar.

Main Article Content

There is a debate about the ethical implications of using human embryos in stem cell research, which can be influenced by cultural, moral, and social values. This paper argues for an adaptable framework to accommodate diverse cultural and religious perspectives. By using an adaptive ethics model, research protections can reflect various populations and foster growth in stem cell research possibilities.

INTRODUCTION

Stem cell research combines biology, medicine, and technology, promising to alter health care and the understanding of human development. Yet, ethical contention exists because of individuals’ perceptions of using human embryos based on their various cultural, moral, and social values. While these disagreements concerning policy, use, and general acceptance have prompted the development of an international ethics policy, such a uniform approach can overlook the nuanced ethical landscapes between cultures. With diverse viewpoints in public health, a single global policy, especially one reflecting Western ethics or the ethics prevalent in high-income countries, is impractical. This paper argues for a culturally sensitive, adaptable framework for the use of embryonic stem cells. Stem cell policy should accommodate varying ethical viewpoints and promote an effective global dialogue. With an extension of an ethics model that can adapt to various cultures, we recommend localized guidelines that reflect the moral views of the people those guidelines serve.

Stem cells, characterized by their unique ability to differentiate into various cell types, enable the repair or replacement of damaged tissues. Two primary types of stem cells are somatic stem cells (adult stem cells) and embryonic stem cells. Adult stem cells exist in developed tissues and maintain the body’s repair processes. [1] Embryonic stem cells (ESC) are remarkably pluripotent or versatile, making them valuable in research. [2] However, the use of ESCs has sparked ethics debates. Considering the potential of embryonic stem cells, research guidelines are essential. The International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR) provides international stem cell research guidelines. They call for “public conversations touching on the scientific significance as well as the societal and ethical issues raised by ESC research.” [3] The ISSCR also publishes updates about culturing human embryos 14 days post fertilization, suggesting local policies and regulations should continue to evolve as ESC research develops. [4]  Like the ISSCR, which calls for local law and policy to adapt to developing stem cell research given cultural acceptance, this paper highlights the importance of local social factors such as religion and culture.

I.     Global Cultural Perspective of Embryonic Stem Cells

Views on ESCs vary throughout the world. Some countries readily embrace stem cell research and therapies, while others have stricter regulations due to ethical concerns surrounding embryonic stem cells and when an embryo becomes entitled to moral consideration. The philosophical issue of when the “someone” begins to be a human after fertilization, in the morally relevant sense, [5] impacts when an embryo becomes not just worthy of protection but morally entitled to it. The process of creating embryonic stem cell lines involves the destruction of the embryos for research. [6] Consequently, global engagement in ESC research depends on social-cultural acceptability.

a.     US and Rights-Based Cultures

In the United States, attitudes toward stem cell therapies are diverse. The ethics and social approaches, which value individualism, [7] trigger debates regarding the destruction of human embryos, creating a complex regulatory environment. For example, the 1996 Dickey-Wicker Amendment prohibited federal funding for the creation of embryos for research and the destruction of embryos for “more than allowed for research on fetuses in utero.” [8] Following suit, in 2001, the Bush Administration heavily restricted stem cell lines for research. However, the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005 was proposed to help develop ESC research but was ultimately vetoed. [9] Under the Obama administration, in 2009, an executive order lifted restrictions allowing for more development in this field. [10] The flux of research capacity and funding parallels the different cultural perceptions of human dignity of the embryo and how it is socially presented within the country’s research culture. [11]

b.     Ubuntu and Collective Cultures

African bioethics differs from Western individualism because of the different traditions and values. African traditions, as described by individuals from South Africa and supported by some studies in other African countries, including Ghana and Kenya, follow the African moral philosophies of Ubuntu or Botho and Ukama , which “advocates for a form of wholeness that comes through one’s relationship and connectedness with other people in the society,” [12] making autonomy a socially collective concept. In this context, for the community to act autonomously, individuals would come together to decide what is best for the collective. Thus, stem cell research would require examining the value of the research to society as a whole and the use of the embryos as a collective societal resource. If society views the source as part of the collective whole, and opposes using stem cells, compromising the cultural values to pursue research may cause social detachment and stunt research growth. [13] Based on local culture and moral philosophy, the permissibility of stem cell research depends on how embryo, stem cell, and cell line therapies relate to the community as a whole. Ubuntu is the expression of humanness, with the person’s identity drawn from the “’I am because we are’” value. [14] The decision in a collectivistic culture becomes one born of cultural context, and individual decisions give deference to others in the society.

Consent differs in cultures where thought and moral philosophy are based on a collective paradigm. So, applying Western bioethical concepts is unrealistic. For one, Africa is a diverse continent with many countries with different belief systems, access to health care, and reliance on traditional or Western medicines. Where traditional medicine is the primary treatment, the “’restrictive focus on biomedically-related bioethics’” [is] problematic in African contexts because it neglects bioethical issues raised by traditional systems.” [15] No single approach applies in all areas or contexts. Rather than evaluating the permissibility of ESC research according to Western concepts such as the four principles approach, different ethics approaches should prevail.

Another consideration is the socio-economic standing of countries. In parts of South Africa, researchers have not focused heavily on contributing to the stem cell discourse, either because it is not considered health care or a health science priority or because resources are unavailable. [16] Each country’s priorities differ given different social, political, and economic factors. In South Africa, for instance, areas such as maternal mortality, non-communicable diseases, telemedicine, and the strength of health systems need improvement and require more focus [17] Stem cell research could benefit the population, but it also could divert resources from basic medical care. Researchers in South Africa adhere to the National Health Act and Medicines Control Act in South Africa and international guidelines; however, the Act is not strictly enforced, and there is no clear legislation for research conduct or ethical guidelines. [18]

Some parts of Africa condemn stem cell research. For example, 98.2 percent of the Tunisian population is Muslim. [19] Tunisia does not permit stem cell research because of moral conflict with a Fatwa. Religion heavily saturates the regulation and direction of research. [20] Stem cell use became permissible for reproductive purposes only recently, with tight restrictions preventing cells from being used in any research other than procedures concerning ART/IVF.  Their use is conditioned on consent, and available only to married couples. [21] The community's receptiveness to stem cell research depends on including communitarian African ethics.

c.     Asia

Some Asian countries also have a collective model of ethics and decision making. [22] In China, the ethics model promotes a sincere respect for life or human dignity, [23] based on protective medicine. This model, influenced by Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), [24] recognizes Qi as the vital energy delivered via the meridians of the body; it connects illness to body systems, the body’s entire constitution, and the universe for a holistic bond of nature, health, and quality of life. [25] Following a protective ethics model, and traditional customs of wholeness, investment in stem cell research is heavily desired for its applications in regenerative therapies, disease modeling, and protective medicines. In a survey of medical students and healthcare practitioners, 30.8 percent considered stem cell research morally unacceptable while 63.5 percent accepted medical research using human embryonic stem cells. Of these individuals, 89.9 percent supported increased funding for stem cell research. [26] The scientific community might not reflect the overall population. From 1997 to 2019, China spent a total of $576 million (USD) on stem cell research at 8,050 stem cell programs, increased published presence from 0.6 percent to 14.01 percent of total global stem cell publications as of 2014, and made significant strides in cell-based therapies for various medical conditions. [27] However, while China has made substantial investments in stem cell research and achieved notable progress in clinical applications, concerns linger regarding ethical oversight and transparency. [28] For example, the China Biosecurity Law, promoted by the National Health Commission and China Hospital Association, attempted to mitigate risks by introducing an institutional review board (IRB) in the regulatory bodies. 5800 IRBs registered with the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry since 2021. [29] However, issues still need to be addressed in implementing effective IRB review and approval procedures.

The substantial government funding and focus on scientific advancement have sometimes overshadowed considerations of regional cultures, ethnic minorities, and individual perspectives, particularly evident during the one-child policy era. As government policy adapts to promote public stability, such as the change from the one-child to the two-child policy, [30] research ethics should also adapt to ensure respect for the values of its represented peoples.

Japan is also relatively supportive of stem cell research and therapies. Japan has a more transparent regulatory framework, allowing for faster approval of regenerative medicine products, which has led to several advanced clinical trials and therapies. [31] South Korea is also actively engaged in stem cell research and has a history of breakthroughs in cloning and embryonic stem cells. [32] However, the field is controversial, and there are issues of scientific integrity. For example, the Korean FDA fast-tracked products for approval, [33] and in another instance, the oocyte source was unclear and possibly violated ethical standards. [34] Trust is important in research, as it builds collaborative foundations between colleagues, trial participant comfort, open-mindedness for complicated and sensitive discussions, and supports regulatory procedures for stakeholders. There is a need to respect the culture’s interest, engagement, and for research and clinical trials to be transparent and have ethical oversight to promote global research discourse and trust.

d.     Middle East

Countries in the Middle East have varying degrees of acceptance of or restrictions to policies related to using embryonic stem cells due to cultural and religious influences. Saudi Arabia has made significant contributions to stem cell research, and conducts research based on international guidelines for ethical conduct and under strict adherence to guidelines in accordance with Islamic principles. Specifically, the Saudi government and people require ESC research to adhere to Sharia law. In addition to umbilical and placental stem cells, [35] Saudi Arabia permits the use of embryonic stem cells as long as they come from miscarriages, therapeutic abortions permissible by Sharia law, or are left over from in vitro fertilization and donated to research. [36] Laws and ethical guidelines for stem cell research allow the development of research institutions such as the King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, which has a cord blood bank and a stem cell registry with nearly 10,000 donors. [37] Such volume and acceptance are due to the ethical ‘permissibility’ of the donor sources, which do not conflict with religious pillars. However, some researchers err on the side of caution, choosing not to use embryos or fetal tissue as they feel it is unethical to do so. [38]

Jordan has a positive research ethics culture. [39] However, there is a significant issue of lack of trust in researchers, with 45.23 percent (38.66 percent agreeing and 6.57 percent strongly agreeing) of Jordanians holding a low level of trust in researchers, compared to 81.34 percent of Jordanians agreeing that they feel safe to participate in a research trial. [40] Safety testifies to the feeling of confidence that adequate measures are in place to protect participants from harm, whereas trust in researchers could represent the confidence in researchers to act in the participants’ best interests, adhere to ethical guidelines, provide accurate information, and respect participants’ rights and dignity. One method to improve trust would be to address communication issues relevant to ESC. Legislation surrounding stem cell research has adopted specific language, especially concerning clarification “between ‘stem cells’ and ‘embryonic stem cells’” in translation. [41] Furthermore, legislation “mandates the creation of a national committee… laying out specific regulations for stem-cell banking in accordance with international standards.” [42] This broad regulation opens the door for future global engagement and maintains transparency. However, these regulations may also constrain the influence of research direction, pace, and accessibility of research outcomes.

e.     Europe

In the European Union (EU), ethics is also principle-based, but the principles of autonomy, dignity, integrity, and vulnerability are interconnected. [43] As such, the opportunity for cohesion and concessions between individuals’ thoughts and ideals allows for a more adaptable ethics model due to the flexible principles that relate to the human experience The EU has put forth a framework in its Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being allowing member states to take different approaches. Each European state applies these principles to its specific conventions, leading to or reflecting different acceptance levels of stem cell research. [44]

For example, in Germany, Lebenzusammenhang , or the coherence of life, references integrity in the unity of human culture. Namely, the personal sphere “should not be subject to external intervention.” [45]  Stem cell interventions could affect this concept of bodily completeness, leading to heavy restrictions. Under the Grundgesetz, human dignity and the right to life with physical integrity are paramount. [46] The Embryo Protection Act of 1991 made producing cell lines illegal. Cell lines can be imported if approved by the Central Ethics Commission for Stem Cell Research only if they were derived before May 2007. [47] Stem cell research respects the integrity of life for the embryo with heavy specifications and intense oversight. This is vastly different in Finland, where the regulatory bodies find research more permissible in IVF excess, but only up to 14 days after fertilization. [48] Spain’s approach differs still, with a comprehensive regulatory framework. [49] Thus, research regulation can be culture-specific due to variations in applied principles. Diverse cultures call for various approaches to ethical permissibility. [50] Only an adaptive-deliberative model can address the cultural constructions of self and achieve positive, culturally sensitive stem cell research practices. [51]

II.     Religious Perspectives on ESC

Embryonic stem cell sources are the main consideration within religious contexts. While individuals may not regard their own religious texts as authoritative or factual, religion can shape their foundations or perspectives.

The Qur'an states:

“And indeed We created man from a quintessence of clay. Then We placed within him a small quantity of nutfa (sperm to fertilize) in a safe place. Then We have fashioned the nutfa into an ‘alaqa (clinging clot or cell cluster), then We developed the ‘alaqa into mudgha (a lump of flesh), and We made mudgha into bones, and clothed the bones with flesh, then We brought it into being as a new creation. So Blessed is Allah, the Best of Creators.” [52]

Many scholars of Islam estimate the time of soul installment, marked by the angel breathing in the soul to bring the individual into creation, as 120 days from conception. [53] Personhood begins at this point, and the value of life would prohibit research or experimentation that could harm the individual. If the fetus is more than 120 days old, the time ensoulment is interpreted to occur according to Islamic law, abortion is no longer permissible. [54] There are a few opposing opinions about early embryos in Islamic traditions. According to some Islamic theologians, there is no ensoulment of the early embryo, which is the source of stem cells for ESC research. [55]

In Buddhism, the stance on stem cell research is not settled. The main tenets, the prohibition against harming or destroying others (ahimsa) and the pursuit of knowledge (prajña) and compassion (karuna), leave Buddhist scholars and communities divided. [56] Some scholars argue stem cell research is in accordance with the Buddhist tenet of seeking knowledge and ending human suffering. Others feel it violates the principle of not harming others. Finding the balance between these two points relies on the karmic burden of Buddhist morality. In trying to prevent ahimsa towards the embryo, Buddhist scholars suggest that to comply with Buddhist tenets, research cannot be done as the embryo has personhood at the moment of conception and would reincarnate immediately, harming the individual's ability to build their karmic burden. [57] On the other hand, the Bodhisattvas, those considered to be on the path to enlightenment or Nirvana, have given organs and flesh to others to help alleviate grieving and to benefit all. [58] Acceptance varies on applied beliefs and interpretations.

Catholicism does not support embryonic stem cell research, as it entails creation or destruction of human embryos. This destruction conflicts with the belief in the sanctity of life. For example, in the Old Testament, Genesis describes humanity as being created in God’s image and multiplying on the Earth, referencing the sacred rights to human conception and the purpose of development and life. In the Ten Commandments, the tenet that one should not kill has numerous interpretations where killing could mean murder or shedding of the sanctity of life, demonstrating the high value of human personhood. In other books, the theological conception of when life begins is interpreted as in utero, [59] highlighting the inviolability of life and its formation in vivo to make a religious point for accepting such research as relatively limited, if at all. [60] The Vatican has released ethical directives to help apply a theological basis to modern-day conflicts. The Magisterium of the Church states that “unless there is a moral certainty of not causing harm,” experimentation on fetuses, fertilized cells, stem cells, or embryos constitutes a crime. [61] Such procedures would not respect the human person who exists at these stages, according to Catholicism. Damages to the embryo are considered gravely immoral and illicit. [62] Although the Catholic Church officially opposes abortion, surveys demonstrate that many Catholic people hold pro-choice views, whether due to the context of conception, stage of pregnancy, threat to the mother’s life, or for other reasons, demonstrating that practicing members can also accept some but not all tenets. [63]

Some major Jewish denominations, such as the Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist movements, are open to supporting ESC use or research as long as it is for saving a life. [64] Within Judaism, the Talmud, or study, gives personhood to the child at birth and emphasizes that life does not begin at conception: [65]

“If she is found pregnant, until the fortieth day it is mere fluid,” [66]

Whereas most religions prioritize the status of human embryos, the Halakah (Jewish religious law) states that to save one life, most other religious laws can be ignored because it is in pursuit of preservation. [67] Stem cell research is accepted due to application of these religious laws.

We recognize that all religions contain subsets and sects. The variety of environmental and cultural differences within religious groups requires further analysis to respect the flexibility of religious thoughts and practices. We make no presumptions that all cultures require notions of autonomy or morality as under the common morality theory , which asserts a set of universal moral norms that all individuals share provides moral reasoning and guides ethical decisions. [68] We only wish to show that the interaction with morality varies between cultures and countries.

III.     A Flexible Ethical Approach

The plurality of different moral approaches described above demonstrates that there can be no universally acceptable uniform law for ESC on a global scale. Instead of developing one standard, flexible ethical applications must be continued. We recommend local guidelines that incorporate important cultural and ethical priorities.

While the Declaration of Helsinki is more relevant to people in clinical trials receiving ESC products, in keeping with the tradition of protections for research subjects, consent of the donor is an ethical requirement for ESC donation in many jurisdictions including the US, Canada, and Europe. [69] The Declaration of Helsinki provides a reference point for regulatory standards and could potentially be used as a universal baseline for obtaining consent prior to gamete or embryo donation.

For instance, in Columbia University’s egg donor program for stem cell research, donors followed standard screening protocols and “underwent counseling sessions that included information as to the purpose of oocyte donation for research, what the oocytes would be used for, the risks and benefits of donation, and process of oocyte stimulation” to ensure transparency for consent. [70] The program helped advance stem cell research and provided clear and safe research methods with paid participants. Though paid participation or covering costs of incidental expenses may not be socially acceptable in every culture or context, [71] and creating embryos for ESC research is illegal in many jurisdictions, Columbia’s program was effective because of the clear and honest communications with donors, IRBs, and related stakeholders.  This example demonstrates that cultural acceptance of scientific research and of the idea that an egg or embryo does not have personhood is likely behind societal acceptance of donating eggs for ESC research. As noted, many countries do not permit the creation of embryos for research.

Proper communication and education regarding the process and purpose of stem cell research may bolster comprehension and garner more acceptance. “Given the sensitive subject material, a complete consent process can support voluntary participation through trust, understanding, and ethical norms from the cultures and morals participants value. This can be hard for researchers entering countries of different socioeconomic stability, with different languages and different societal values. [72]

An adequate moral foundation in medical ethics is derived from the cultural and religious basis that informs knowledge and actions. [73] Understanding local cultural and religious values and their impact on research could help researchers develop humility and promote inclusion.

IV.     Concerns

Some may argue that if researchers all adhere to one ethics standard, protection will be satisfied across all borders, and the global public will trust researchers. However, defining what needs to be protected and how to define such research standards is very specific to the people to which standards are applied. We suggest that applying one uniform guide cannot accurately protect each individual because we all possess our own perceptions and interpretations of social values. [74] Therefore, the issue of not adjusting to the moral pluralism between peoples in applying one standard of ethics can be resolved by building out ethics models that can be adapted to different cultures and religions.

Other concerns include medical tourism, which may promote health inequities. [75] Some countries may develop and approve products derived from ESC research before others, compromising research ethics or drug approval processes. There are also concerns about the sale of unauthorized stem cell treatments, for example, those without FDA approval in the United States. Countries with robust research infrastructures may be tempted to attract medical tourists, and some customers will have false hopes based on aggressive publicity of unproven treatments. [76]

For example, in China, stem cell clinics can market to foreign clients who are not protected under the regulatory regimes. Companies employ a marketing strategy of “ethically friendly” therapies. Specifically, in the case of Beike, China’s leading stem cell tourism company and sprouting network, ethical oversight of administrators or health bureaus at one site has “the unintended consequence of shifting questionable activities to another node in Beike's diffuse network.” [77] In contrast, Jordan is aware of stem cell research’s potential abuse and its own status as a “health-care hub.” Jordan’s expanded regulations include preserving the interests of individuals in clinical trials and banning private companies from ESC research to preserve transparency and the integrity of research practices. [78]

The social priorities of the community are also a concern. The ISSCR explicitly states that guidelines “should be periodically revised to accommodate scientific advances, new challenges, and evolving social priorities.” [79] The adaptable ethics model extends this consideration further by addressing whether research is warranted given the varying degrees of socioeconomic conditions, political stability, and healthcare accessibilities and limitations. An ethical approach would require discussion about resource allocation and appropriate distribution of funds. [80]

While some religions emphasize the sanctity of life from conception, which may lead to public opposition to ESC research, others encourage ESC research due to its potential for healing and alleviating human pain. Many countries have special regulations that balance local views on embryonic personhood, the benefits of research as individual or societal goods, and the protection of human research subjects. To foster understanding and constructive dialogue, global policy frameworks should prioritize the protection of universal human rights, transparency, and informed consent. In addition to these foundational global policies, we recommend tailoring local guidelines to reflect the diverse cultural and religious perspectives of the populations they govern. Ethics models should be adapted to local populations to effectively establish research protections, growth, and possibilities of stem cell research.

For example, in countries with strong beliefs in the moral sanctity of embryos or heavy religious restrictions, an adaptive model can allow for discussion instead of immediate rejection. In countries with limited individual rights and voice in science policy, an adaptive model ensures cultural, moral, and religious views are taken into consideration, thereby building social inclusion. While this ethical consideration by the government may not give a complete voice to every individual, it will help balance policies and maintain the diverse perspectives of those it affects. Embracing an adaptive ethics model of ESC research promotes open-minded dialogue and respect for the importance of human belief and tradition. By actively engaging with cultural and religious values, researchers can better handle disagreements and promote ethical research practices that benefit each society.

This brief exploration of the religious and cultural differences that impact ESC research reveals the nuances of relative ethics and highlights a need for local policymakers to apply a more intense adaptive model.

[1] Poliwoda, S., Noor, N., Downs, E., Schaaf, A., Cantwell, A., Ganti, L., Kaye, A. D., Mosel, L. I., Carroll, C. B., Viswanath, O., & Urits, I. (2022). Stem cells: a comprehensive review of origins and emerging clinical roles in medical practice.  Orthopedic reviews ,  14 (3), 37498. https://doi.org/10.52965/001c.37498

[2] Poliwoda, S., Noor, N., Downs, E., Schaaf, A., Cantwell, A., Ganti, L., Kaye, A. D., Mosel, L. I., Carroll, C. B., Viswanath, O., & Urits, I. (2022). Stem cells: a comprehensive review of origins and emerging clinical roles in medical practice.  Orthopedic reviews ,  14 (3), 37498. https://doi.org/10.52965/001c.37498

[3] International Society for Stem Cell Research. (2023). Laboratory-based human embryonic stem cell research, embryo research, and related research activities . International Society for Stem Cell Research. https://www.isscr.org/guidelines/blog-post-title-one-ed2td-6fcdk ; Kimmelman, J., Hyun, I., Benvenisty, N.  et al.  Policy: Global standards for stem-cell research.  Nature   533 , 311–313 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/533311a

[4] International Society for Stem Cell Research. (2023). Laboratory-based human embryonic stem cell research, embryo research, and related research activities . International Society for Stem Cell Research. https://www.isscr.org/guidelines/blog-post-title-one-ed2td-6fcdk

[5] Concerning the moral philosophies of stem cell research, our paper does not posit a personal moral stance nor delve into the “when” of human life begins. To read further about the philosophical debate, consider the following sources:

Sandel M. J. (2004). Embryo ethics--the moral logic of stem-cell research.  The New England journal of medicine ,  351 (3), 207–209. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp048145 ; George, R. P., & Lee, P. (2020, September 26). Acorns and Embryos . The New Atlantis. https://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/acorns-and-embryos ; Sagan, A., & Singer, P. (2007). The moral status of stem cells. Metaphilosophy , 38 (2/3), 264–284. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24439776 ; McHugh P. R. (2004). Zygote and "clonote"--the ethical use of embryonic stem cells.  The New England journal of medicine ,  351 (3), 209–211. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp048147 ; Kurjak, A., & Tripalo, A. (2004). The facts and doubts about beginning of the human life and personality.  Bosnian journal of basic medical sciences ,  4 (1), 5–14. https://doi.org/10.17305/bjbms.2004.3453

[6] Vazin, T., & Freed, W. J. (2010). Human embryonic stem cells: derivation, culture, and differentiation: a review.  Restorative neurology and neuroscience ,  28 (4), 589–603. https://doi.org/10.3233/RNN-2010-0543

[7] Socially, at its core, the Western approach to ethics is widely principle-based, autonomy being one of the key factors to ensure a fundamental respect for persons within research. For information regarding autonomy in research, see: Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, & National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1978). The Belmont Report. Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research.; For a more in-depth review of autonomy within the US, see: Beauchamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. (1994). Principles of Biomedical Ethics . Oxford University Press.

[8] Sherley v. Sebelius , 644 F.3d 388 (D.C. Cir. 2011), citing 45 C.F.R. 46.204(b) and [42 U.S.C. § 289g(b)]. https://www.cadc.uscourts.gov/internet/opinions.nsf/6c690438a9b43dd685257a64004ebf99/$file/11-5241-1391178.pdf

[9] Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005, H. R. 810, 109 th Cong. (2001). https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/109/hr810/text ; Bush, G. W. (2006, July 19). Message to the House of Representatives . National Archives and Records Administration. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/07/20060719-5.html

[10] National Archives and Records Administration. (2009, March 9). Executive order 13505 -- removing barriers to responsible scientific research involving human stem cells . National Archives and Records Administration. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/removing-barriers-responsible-scientific-research-involving-human-stem-cells

[11] Hurlbut, W. B. (2006). Science, Religion, and the Politics of Stem Cells.  Social Research ,  73 (3), 819–834. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40971854

[12] Akpa-Inyang, Francis & Chima, Sylvester. (2021). South African traditional values and beliefs regarding informed consent and limitations of the principle of respect for autonomy in African communities: a cross-cultural qualitative study. BMC Medical Ethics . 22. 10.1186/s12910-021-00678-4.

[13] Source for further reading: Tangwa G. B. (2007). Moral status of embryonic stem cells: perspective of an African villager. Bioethics , 21(8), 449–457. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8519.2007.00582.x , see also Mnisi, F. M. (2020). An African analysis based on ethics of Ubuntu - are human embryonic stem cell patents morally justifiable? African Insight , 49 (4).

[14] Jecker, N. S., & Atuire, C. (2021). Bioethics in Africa: A contextually enlightened analysis of three cases. Developing World Bioethics , 22 (2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12324

[15] Jecker, N. S., & Atuire, C. (2021). Bioethics in Africa: A contextually enlightened analysis of three cases. Developing World Bioethics, 22(2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12324

[16] Jackson, C.S., Pepper, M.S. Opportunities and barriers to establishing a cell therapy programme in South Africa.  Stem Cell Res Ther   4 , 54 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1186/scrt204 ; Pew Research Center. (2014, May 1). Public health a major priority in African nations . Pew Research Center’s Global Attitudes Project. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2014/05/01/public-health-a-major-priority-in-african-nations/

[17] Department of Health Republic of South Africa. (2021). Health Research Priorities (revised) for South Africa 2021-2024 . National Health Research Strategy. https://www.health.gov.za/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/National-Health-Research-Priorities-2021-2024.pdf

[18] Oosthuizen, H. (2013). Legal and Ethical Issues in Stem Cell Research in South Africa. In: Beran, R. (eds) Legal and Forensic Medicine. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32338-6_80 , see also: Gaobotse G (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[19] United States Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services. (1998). Tunisia: Information on the status of Christian conversions in Tunisia . UNHCR Web Archive. https://webarchive.archive.unhcr.org/20230522142618/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3df0be9a2.html

[20] Gaobotse, G. (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[21] Kooli, C. Review of assisted reproduction techniques, laws, and regulations in Muslim countries.  Middle East Fertil Soc J   24 , 8 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43043-019-0011-0 ; Gaobotse, G. (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[22] Pang M. C. (1999). Protective truthfulness: the Chinese way of safeguarding patients in informed treatment decisions. Journal of medical ethics , 25(3), 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.25.3.247

[23] Wang, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, W. (2021). Bioethics in China’s biosecurity law: Forms, effects, and unsettled issues. Journal of law and the biosciences , 8(1).  https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab019 https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/8/1/lsab019/6299199

[24] Wang, Y., Xue, Y., & Guo, H. D. (2022). Intervention effects of traditional Chinese medicine on stem cell therapy of myocardial infarction.  Frontiers in pharmacology ,  13 , 1013740. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.1013740

[25] Li, X.-T., & Zhao, J. (2012). Chapter 4: An Approach to the Nature of Qi in TCM- Qi and Bioenergy. In Recent Advances in Theories and Practice of Chinese Medicine (p. 79). InTech.

[26] Luo, D., Xu, Z., Wang, Z., & Ran, W. (2021). China's Stem Cell Research and Knowledge Levels of Medical Practitioners and Students.  Stem cells international ,  2021 , 6667743. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6667743

[27] Luo, D., Xu, Z., Wang, Z., & Ran, W. (2021). China's Stem Cell Research and Knowledge Levels of Medical Practitioners and Students.  Stem cells international ,  2021 , 6667743. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6667743

[28] Zhang, J. Y. (2017). Lost in translation? accountability and governance of Clinical Stem Cell Research in China. Regenerative Medicine , 12 (6), 647–656. https://doi.org/10.2217/rme-2017-0035

[29] Wang, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, W. (2021). Bioethics in China’s biosecurity law: Forms, effects, and unsettled issues. Journal of law and the biosciences , 8(1).  https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab019 https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/8/1/lsab019/6299199

[30] Chen, H., Wei, T., Wang, H.  et al.  Association of China’s two-child policy with changes in number of births and birth defects rate, 2008–2017.  BMC Public Health   22 , 434 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-12839-0

[31] Azuma, K. Regulatory Landscape of Regenerative Medicine in Japan.  Curr Stem Cell Rep   1 , 118–128 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40778-015-0012-6

[32] Harris, R. (2005, May 19). Researchers Report Advance in Stem Cell Production . NPR. https://www.npr.org/2005/05/19/4658967/researchers-report-advance-in-stem-cell-production

[33] Park, S. (2012). South Korea steps up stem-cell work.  Nature . https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2012.10565

[34] Resnik, D. B., Shamoo, A. E., & Krimsky, S. (2006). Fraudulent human embryonic stem cell research in South Korea: lessons learned.  Accountability in research ,  13 (1), 101–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/08989620600634193 .

[35] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[36] Association for the Advancement of Blood and Biotherapies.  https://www.aabb.org/regulatory-and-advocacy/regulatory-affairs/regulatory-for-cellular-therapies/international-competent-authorities/saudi-arabia

[37] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia.  BMC medical ethics ,  21 (1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[38] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics , 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

Culturally, autonomy practices follow a relational autonomy approach based on a paternalistic deontological health care model. The adherence to strict international research policies and religious pillars within the regulatory environment is a great foundation for research ethics. However, there is a need to develop locally targeted ethics approaches for research (as called for in Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6), this decision-making approach may help advise a research decision model. For more on the clinical cultural autonomy approaches, see: Alabdullah, Y. Y., Alzaid, E., Alsaad, S., Alamri, T., Alolayan, S. W., Bah, S., & Aljoudi, A. S. (2022). Autonomy and paternalism in Shared decision‐making in a Saudi Arabian tertiary hospital: A cross‐sectional study. Developing World Bioethics , 23 (3), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12355 ; Bukhari, A. A. (2017). Universal Principles of Bioethics and Patient Rights in Saudi Arabia (Doctoral dissertation, Duquesne University). https://dsc.duq.edu/etd/124; Ladha, S., Nakshawani, S. A., Alzaidy, A., & Tarab, B. (2023, October 26). Islam and Bioethics: What We All Need to Know . Columbia University School of Professional Studies. https://sps.columbia.edu/events/islam-and-bioethics-what-we-all-need-know

[39] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[40] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[41] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[42] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[43] The EU’s definition of autonomy relates to the capacity for creating ideas, moral insight, decisions, and actions without constraint, personal responsibility, and informed consent. However, the EU views autonomy as not completely able to protect individuals and depends on other principles, such as dignity, which “expresses the intrinsic worth and fundamental equality of all human beings.” Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[44] Council of Europe. Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (ETS No. 164) https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=164 (forbidding the creation of embryos for research purposes only, and suggests embryos in vitro have protections.); Also see Drabiak-Syed B. K. (2013). New President, New Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research Policy: Comparative International Perspectives and Embryonic Stem Cell Research Laws in France.  Biotechnology Law Report ,  32 (6), 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1089/blr.2013.9865

[45] Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[46] Tomuschat, C., Currie, D. P., Kommers, D. P., & Kerr, R. (Trans.). (1949, May 23). Basic law for the Federal Republic of Germany. https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf

[47] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Germany . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-germany

[48] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Finland . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-finland

[49] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Spain . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-spain

[50] Some sources to consider regarding ethics models or regulatory oversights of other cultures not covered:

Kara MA. Applicability of the principle of respect for autonomy: the perspective of Turkey. J Med Ethics. 2007 Nov;33(11):627-30. doi: 10.1136/jme.2006.017400. PMID: 17971462; PMCID: PMC2598110.

Ugarte, O. N., & Acioly, M. A. (2014). The principle of autonomy in Brazil: one needs to discuss it ...  Revista do Colegio Brasileiro de Cirurgioes ,  41 (5), 374–377. https://doi.org/10.1590/0100-69912014005013

Bharadwaj, A., & Glasner, P. E. (2012). Local cells, global science: The rise of embryonic stem cell research in India . Routledge.

For further research on specific European countries regarding ethical and regulatory framework, we recommend this database: Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Europe . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-europe   

[51] Klitzman, R. (2006). Complications of culture in obtaining informed consent. The American Journal of Bioethics, 6(1), 20–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265160500394671 see also: Ekmekci, P. E., & Arda, B. (2017). Interculturalism and Informed Consent: Respecting Cultural Differences without Breaching Human Rights.  Cultura (Iasi, Romania) ,  14 (2), 159–172.; For why trust is important in research, see also: Gray, B., Hilder, J., Macdonald, L., Tester, R., Dowell, A., & Stubbe, M. (2017). Are research ethics guidelines culturally competent?  Research Ethics ,  13 (1), 23-41.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016116650235

[52] The Qur'an  (M. Khattab, Trans.). (1965). Al-Mu’minun, 23: 12-14. https://quran.com/23

[53] Lenfest, Y. (2017, December 8). Islam and the beginning of human life . Bill of Health. https://blog.petrieflom.law.harvard.edu/2017/12/08/islam-and-the-beginning-of-human-life/

[54] Aksoy, S. (2005). Making regulations and drawing up legislation in Islamic countries under conditions of uncertainty, with special reference to embryonic stem cell research. Journal of Medical Ethics , 31: 399-403.; see also: Mahmoud, Azza. "Islamic Bioethics: National Regulations and Guidelines of Human Stem Cell Research in the Muslim World." Master's thesis, Chapman University, 2022. https://doi.org/10.36837/ chapman.000386

[55] Rashid, R. (2022). When does Ensoulment occur in the Human Foetus. Journal of the British Islamic Medical Association , 12 (4). ISSN 2634 8071. https://www.jbima.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/2-Ethics-3_-Ensoulment_Rafaqat.pdf.

[56] Sivaraman, M. & Noor, S. (2017). Ethics of embryonic stem cell research according to Buddhist, Hindu, Catholic, and Islamic religions: perspective from Malaysia. Asian Biomedicine,8(1) 43-52.  https://doi.org/10.5372/1905-7415.0801.260

[57] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[58] Lecso, P. A. (1991). The Bodhisattva Ideal and Organ Transplantation.  Journal of Religion and Health ,  30 (1), 35–41. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27510629 ; Bodhisattva, S. (n.d.). The Key of Becoming a Bodhisattva . A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of Life. http://www.buddhism.org/Sutras/2/BodhisattvaWay.htm

[59] There is no explicit religious reference to when life begins or how to conduct research that interacts with the concept of life. However, these are relevant verses pertaining to how the fetus is viewed. (( King James Bible . (1999). Oxford University Press. (original work published 1769))

Jerimiah 1: 5 “Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee; and before thou camest forth out of the womb I sanctified thee…”

In prophet Jerimiah’s insight, God set him apart as a person known before childbirth, a theme carried within the Psalm of David.

Psalm 139: 13-14 “…Thou hast covered me in my mother's womb. I will praise thee; for I am fearfully and wonderfully made…”

These verses demonstrate David’s respect for God as an entity that would know of all man’s thoughts and doings even before birth.

[60] It should be noted that abortion is not supported as well.

[61] The Vatican. (1987, February 22). Instruction on Respect for Human Life in Its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation Replies to Certain Questions of the Day . Congregation For the Doctrine of the Faith. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19870222_respect-for-human-life_en.html

[62] The Vatican. (2000, August 25). Declaration On the Production and the Scientific and Therapeutic Use of Human Embryonic Stem Cells . Pontifical Academy for Life. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_academies/acdlife/documents/rc_pa_acdlife_doc_20000824_cellule-staminali_en.html ; Ohara, N. (2003). Ethical Consideration of Experimentation Using Living Human Embryos: The Catholic Church’s Position on Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research and Human Cloning. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology . Retrieved from https://article.imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/30/2-3/pii/2003018/77-81.pdf.

[63] Smith, G. A. (2022, May 23). Like Americans overall, Catholics vary in their abortion views, with regular mass attenders most opposed . Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/05/23/like-americans-overall-catholics-vary-in-their-abortion-views-with-regular-mass-attenders-most-opposed/

[64] Rosner, F., & Reichman, E. (2002). Embryonic stem cell research in Jewish law. Journal of halacha and contemporary society , (43), 49–68.; Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[65] Schenker J. G. (2008). The beginning of human life: status of embryo. Perspectives in Halakha (Jewish Religious Law).  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  25 (6), 271–276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-008-9221-6

[66] Ruttenberg, D. (2020, May 5). The Torah of Abortion Justice (annotated source sheet) . Sefaria. https://www.sefaria.org/sheets/234926.7?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en

[67] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[68] Gert, B. (2007). Common morality: Deciding what to do . Oxford Univ. Press.

[69] World Medical Association (2013). World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. JAMA , 310(20), 2191–2194. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.281053 Declaration of Helsinki – WMA – The World Medical Association .; see also: National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. (1979).  The Belmont report: Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research . U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.  https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/read-the-belmont-report/index.html

[70] Zakarin Safier, L., Gumer, A., Kline, M., Egli, D., & Sauer, M. V. (2018). Compensating human subjects providing oocytes for stem cell research: 9-year experience and outcomes.  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  35 (7), 1219–1225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-018-1171-z https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6063839/ see also: Riordan, N. H., & Paz Rodríguez, J. (2021). Addressing concerns regarding associated costs, transparency, and integrity of research in recent stem cell trial. Stem Cells Translational Medicine , 10 (12), 1715–1716. https://doi.org/10.1002/sctm.21-0234

[71] Klitzman, R., & Sauer, M. V. (2009). Payment of egg donors in stem cell research in the USA.  Reproductive biomedicine online ,  18 (5), 603–608. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1472-6483(10)60002-8

[72] Krosin, M. T., Klitzman, R., Levin, B., Cheng, J., & Ranney, M. L. (2006). Problems in comprehension of informed consent in rural and peri-urban Mali, West Africa.  Clinical trials (London, England) ,  3 (3), 306–313. https://doi.org/10.1191/1740774506cn150oa

[73] Veatch, Robert M.  Hippocratic, Religious, and Secular Medical Ethics: The Points of Conflict . Georgetown University Press, 2012.

[74] Msoroka, M. S., & Amundsen, D. (2018). One size fits not quite all: Universal research ethics with diversity.  Research Ethics ,  14 (3), 1-17.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016117739939

[75] Pirzada, N. (2022). The Expansion of Turkey’s Medical Tourism Industry.  Voices in Bioethics ,  8 . https://doi.org/10.52214/vib.v8i.9894

[76] Stem Cell Tourism: False Hope for Real Money . Harvard Stem Cell Institute (HSCI). (2023). https://hsci.harvard.edu/stem-cell-tourism , See also: Bissassar, M. (2017). Transnational Stem Cell Tourism: An ethical analysis.  Voices in Bioethics ,  3 . https://doi.org/10.7916/vib.v3i.6027

[77] Song, P. (2011) The proliferation of stem cell therapies in post-Mao China: problematizing ethical regulation,  New Genetics and Society , 30:2, 141-153, DOI:  10.1080/14636778.2011.574375

[78] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[79] International Society for Stem Cell Research. (2024). Standards in stem cell research . International Society for Stem Cell Research. https://www.isscr.org/guidelines/5-standards-in-stem-cell-research

[80] Benjamin, R. (2013). People’s science bodies and rights on the Stem Cell Frontier . Stanford University Press.

Mifrah Hayath

SM Candidate Harvard Medical School, MS Biotechnology Johns Hopkins University

Olivia Bowers

MS Bioethics Columbia University (Disclosure: affiliated with Voices in Bioethics)

Article Details

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .

• Share full article

For more audio journalism and storytelling, download New York Times Audio , a new iOS app available for news subscribers.

• May 16, 2024   •   30:47 The Make-or-Break Testimony of Michael Cohen
• May 15, 2024   •   27:03 The Possible Collapse of the U.S. Home Insurance System
• May 14, 2024   •   35:20 Voters Want Change. In Our Poll, They See It in Trump.
• May 13, 2024   •   27:46 How Biden Adopted Trump’s Trade War With China
• May 10, 2024   •   27:42 Stormy Daniels Takes the Stand
• May 9, 2024   •   34:42 One Strongman, One Billion Voters, and the Future of India
• May 8, 2024   •   28:28 A Plan to Remake the Middle East
• May 7, 2024   •   27:43 How Changing Ocean Temperatures Could Upend Life on Earth
• May 6, 2024   •   29:23 R.F.K. Jr.’s Battle to Get on the Ballot
• May 3, 2024   •   25:33 The Protesters and the President
• May 2, 2024   •   29:13 Biden Loosens Up on Weed
• May 1, 2024   •   35:16 The New Abortion Fight Before the Supreme Court

The Make-or-Break Testimony of Michael Cohen

The key prosecution witness faced defense lawyers as donald j. trump’s manhattan criminal trial neared what may be an unexpectedly early conclusion..

Hosted by Michael Barbaro

Featuring Jonah E. Bromwich

Produced by Eric Krupke ,  Stella Tan and Will Reid

Edited by Devon Taylor

Original music by Elisheba Ittoop ,  Marion Lozano and Pat McCusker

Engineered by Alyssa Moxley

Listen and follow The Daily Apple Podcasts | Spotify | Amazon Music | YouTube

This episode contains explicit language.

Michael Cohen, Donald J. Trump’s former lawyer and fixer, took the stand in the former president’s hush money trial.

Jonah E. Bromwich, a criminal justice reporter, discusses how Mr. Cohen could cause problems for Mr. Trump himself.

On today’s episode

Jonah E. Bromwich , one of the lead reporters covering the Manhattan criminal trial of Donald J. Trump for The New York Times.

Background reading

Michael Cohen is the central witness in the first criminal trial of an American president.

Mr. Cohen’s account of an arrangement struck in the White House was the only personal testimony tying Donald J. Trump to falsified documents.

There are a lot of ways to listen to The Daily. Here’s how.

We aim to make transcripts available the next workday after an episode’s publication. You can find them at the top of the page.

The Daily is made by Rachel Quester, Lynsea Garrison, Clare Toeniskoetter, Paige Cowett, Michael Simon Johnson, Brad Fisher, Chris Wood, Jessica Cheung, Stella Tan, Alexandra Leigh Young, Lisa Chow, Eric Krupke, Marc Georges, Luke Vander Ploeg, M.J. Davis Lin, Dan Powell, Sydney Harper, Mike Benoist, Liz O. Baylen, Asthaa Chaturvedi, Rachelle Bonja, Diana Nguyen, Marion Lozano, Corey Schreppel, Rob Szypko, Elisheba Ittoop, Mooj Zadie, Patricia Willens, Rowan Niemisto, Jody Becker, Rikki Novetsky, John Ketchum, Nina Feldman, Will Reid, Carlos Prieto, Ben Calhoun, Susan Lee, Lexie Diao, Mary Wilson, Alex Stern, Dan Farrell, Sophia Lanman, Shannon Lin, Diane Wong, Devon Taylor, Alyssa Moxley, Summer Thomad, Olivia Natt, Daniel Ramirez and Brendan Klinkenberg.

Our theme music is by Jim Brunberg and Ben Landsverk of Wonderly. Special thanks to Sam Dolnick, Paula Szuchman, Lisa Tobin, Larissa Anderson, Julia Simon, Sofia Milan, Mahima Chablani, Elizabeth Davis-Moorer, Jeffrey Miranda, Renan Borelli, Maddy Masiello, Isabella Anderson and Nina Lassam.

Jonah E. Bromwich covers criminal justice in New York, with a focus on the Manhattan district attorney’s office and state criminal courts in Manhattan. More about Jonah E. Bromwich

Advertisement

Knowledge-Driven Logistics Transformation: Complex Networks and UAVs in Distribution

• Published: 16 May 2024

Cite this article

• Long-Yang Huang 1 ,
• Si-Yi Li 1 ,
• Xiang Zou 2 , 3 ,
• Bo-Zhi Zhao 1 &
• Cheng-Long Li 1  

In today’s rapidly evolving knowledge economy, the logistics landscape faces unprecedented challenges driven by the demands of e-commerce and takeaway services. Traditional logistics struggle with inefficiencies and escalating labor costs, prompting a paradigm shift toward leveraging uncrewed aerial vehicles (UAVs) for distribution. This paper explores the intersection of UAV technology, complex network theory, and the knowledge economy. The incorporation of UAVs into logistics networks offers a transformative solution to traditional challenges. However, a noticeable research gap exists in the strategic opening of distribution sites and optimizing flight paths. This study bridges this gap by introducing complex network evaluation indices into urban logistics UAV distribution networks. By applying complex network and innovation diffusion theories, we systematically assess the importance of distribution sites within the network, challenging conventional assumptions. Furthermore, we highlight the importance of knowledge management strategies in enhancing operational efficiency and adaptability within UAV distribution networks. Effective knowledge sharing and data analytics play a crucial role in informed decision-making and ongoing innovation. Our research pioneers the application of complex network evaluation indices, offering insights for logistics operators seeking to optimize their operations. This study advances our understanding of UAV logistics within the knowledge economy. It provides theoretical foundations for complex network analysis and practical recommendations for logistics managers. Embracing UAV technology presents economic and innovation implications, making it a driving force for efficiency and competitiveness in the logistics industry.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price includes VAT (Russian Federation)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Rent this article via DeepDyve

Institutional subscriptions

Data Availability

Datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Abualigah, L., Diabat, A., Sumari, P., & Gandomi, A. H. (2021). Applications, deployments, and integration of internet of drones (iod): A review. IEEE Sensors Journal, 21 (22), 25532–25546.

Article   Google Scholar  

Aditya, U. S., Singh, R., Singh, P. K., & Kalla, A. (2021). A survey on blockchain in robotics: Issues, opportunities, challenges and future directions. Journal of Network and Computer Applications, 196 , 103245.

Ahmad, T., Madonski, R., Zhang, D., Huang, C., & Mujeeb, A. (2022). Data-driven probabilistic machine learning in sustainable smart energy/smart energy systems: Key developments, challenges, and future research opportunities in the context of smart grid paradigm. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 160 , 112128.

Ali, M. H., Chung, L., Kumar, A., Zailani, S., & Tan, K. H. (2021). A sustainable Blockchain framework for the halal food supply chain: Lessons from Malaysia. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 170 , 120870.

Allioui, H., & Mourdi, Y. (2023). Exploring the full potentials of IoT for better financial growth and stability: A comprehensive survey. Sensors, 23 (19), 8015.

Alyassi, R., Khonji, M., Karapetyan, A., Chau, S. C. K., Elbassioni, K., & Tseng, C. M. (2022). Autonomous recharging and flight mission planning for battery-operated autonomous drones. IEEE Transactions on Automation Science and Engineering, 20 (2), 1034–1046.

Azmat, M., & Kummer, S. (2020). Potential applications of unmanned ground and aerial vehicles to mitigate challenges of transport and logistics-related critical success factors in the humanitarian supply chain. Asian Journal of Sustainability and Social Responsibility, 5 (1), 1–22.

Barrat, A., Barthélemy, M., & Vespignani, A. (2004). Weighted evolving networks: Coupling topology and weight dynamics. Physical Review Letters, 92 (22), 228701.

Batallas, D. A., & Yassine, A. A. (2006). Information leaders in product development organizational networks: Social network analysis of the design structure matrix. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 53 (4), 570–582.

Cares, J. (2006).  Distributed networked operations: The foundations of network centric warfare . IUniverse.

Chinn, C. A., & Malhotra, B. A. (2002). Epistemologically authentic inquiry in schools: A theoretical framework for evaluating inquiry tasks. Science Education, 86 (2), 175–218.

Costa, L. D. F., Rodrigues, F. A., Travieso, G., & Villas Boas, P. R. (2007). Characterization of complex networks: A survey of measurements. Advances in Physics, 56 (1), 167–242.

Coward, M. (2018). Against network thinking: A critique of pathological sovereignty. European Journal of International Relations, 24 (2), 440–463.

Curado, M., Rodriguez, R., Tortosa, L., & Vicent, J. F. (2022). Anew centrality measure in dense networks based on two-way random walk betweenness. Applied Mathematics and Computation, 412 , 126560.

Ding, J., Jiao, L., Wu, J., & Liu, F. (2020). Complex network structure extraction based on community relevance. International Journal of Modern Physics C, 31 (04), 2050062.

Dong, C., Akram, A., Andersson, D., Arnäs, P. O., & Stefansson, G. (2021). The impact of emerging and disruptive technologies on freight transportation in the digital era: Current state and future trends. The International Journal of Logistics Management, 32 (2), 386–412.

El-Jardali, F., Bou-Karroum, L., & Fadlallah, R. (2020). Amplifying the role of knowledge translation platforms in the COVID-19 pandemic response. Health Research Policy and Systems, 18 , 1–7.

Elsayed, M., & Mohamed, M. (2020). The impact of airspace regulations on unmanned aerial vehicles in last-mile operation. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 87 , 102480.

Euchi, J. (2021). Do drones have a realistic place in a pandemic fight for delivering medical supplies in healthcare systems problems? Chinese Journal of Aeronautics, 34 (2), 182–190.

Golpîra, H., Khan, S. A. R., & Safaeipour, S. (2021). A review of logistics internet-of-things: Current trends and scope for future research. Journal of Industrial Information Integration, 22 , 100194.

Greenhalgh, T., Wherton, J., Papoutsi, C., Lynch, J., Hughes, G., Hinder, S., ... & Shaw, S. (2017). Beyond adoption: A new framework for theorizing and evaluating nonadoption, abandonment, and challenges to the scale-up, spread, and sustainability of health and care technologies.  Journal of Medical Internet Research ,  19 (11), e8775.

Gupta, L., Jain, R., & Vaszkun, G. (2015). Survey of important issues in UAV communication networks. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, 18 (2), 1123–1152.

Hazen, B. T., Overstreet, R. E., & Cegielski, C. G. (2012). Supply chain innovation diffusion: Going beyond adoption. The International Journal of Logistics Management, 23 (1), 119–134.

Hofmann, E., & Rüsch, M. (2017). Industry 4.0 and the current status as well as future prospects on logistics. Computers in Industry, 89 , 23–34.

Hossain, N. U. I., Sakib, N., & Govindan, K. (2022). Assessing the performance of unmanned aerial vehicle for logistics and transportation leveraging the Bayesian network approach. Expert Systems with Applications, 209 , 118301.

Huang, Y., Tang, J., & LAO, S. (2018). UAV flight conflict resolution algorithm based on complex network. Acta Aeronautica Et Astronautica Sinica, 39 (12), 262–274.

Jasim, M. A., Shakhatreh, H., Siasi, N., Sawalmeh, A. H., Aldalbahi, A., & Al-Fuqaha, A. (2021). A survey on spectrum management for unmanned aerial vehicles (uavs). IEEE Access, 10 , 11443–11499.

Javaid, M., Khan, I. H., Singh, R. P., Rab, S., & Suman, R. (2022). Exploring contributions of drones towards Industry 4.0.  Industrial Robot: The International Journal of Robotics Research and Application ,  49 (3), 476–490.

Karamitsos, G., Bechtsis, D., Tsolakis, N., & Vlachos, D. (2021). Unmanned aerial vehicles for inventory listing. International Journal of Business and Systems Research, 15 (6), 748–756.

Khawaja, W., Guvenc, I., Matolak, D. W., Fiebig, U. C., & Schneckenburger, N. (2019). A survey of air-to-ground propagation channel modeling for unmanned aerial vehicles. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, 21 (3), 2361–2391.

Kim, J., Justin, C., Mavris, D., & Briceno, S. (2022). Data-driven approach using machine learning for real-time flight path optimization. Journal of Aerospace Information Systems, 19 (1), 3–21.

Lee, C. Y., Chong, H. Y., Liao, P. C., & Wang, X. (2018). Critical review of social network analysis applications in complex project management. Journal of Management in Engineering, 34 (2), 04017061.

Lee, D., Hess, D. J., & Heldeweg, M. A. (2022). Safety and privacy regulations for unmanned aerial vehicles: A multiple comparative analysis. Technology in Society, 71 , 102079.

Li, H., Shang, Q., & Deng, Y. (2021a). A modified gravity model based on network efficiency for vital nodes identification in complex networks. arXiv preprint  arXiv:2111.01526

Li, S., Zhang, H., Li, Z., & Liu, H. (2021b). An air route network planning model of logistics UAV terminal distribution in urban low altitude airspace. Sustainability, 13 (23), 13079.

Li, X., Tupayachi, J., Sharmin, A., & Martinez Ferguson, M. (2023). Drone-aided delivery methods, challenge, and the future: A methodological review. Drones, 7 (3), 191.

Li, Y., Liu, M., & Jiang, D. (2022). Application of unmanned aerial vehicles in logistics: A literature review. Sustainability, 14 (21), 14473.

Liao, Y., Wu, G., & Huang, J. (2023). The impact of rural E-commerce environment development on orchard expansion from the perspective of tele-coupling: The case of Pinghe County in Southeast China. Land, 12 (11), 1991.

Mathauer, M., & Hofmann, E. (2019). Technology adoption by logistics service providers. International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, 49 (4), 416–434.

Misra, N. N., Dixit, Y., Al-Mallahi, A., Bhullar, M. S., Upadhyay, R., & Martynenko, A. (2020). IoT, big data, and artificial intelligence in agriculture and food industry. IEEE Internet of Things Journal, 9 (9), 6305–6324.

Mithas, S., Chen, Z. L., Saldanha, T. J., & De Oliveira Silveira, A. (2022). How will artificial intelligence and Industry 4.0 emerging technologies transform operations management? Production and Operations Management, 31 (12), 4475–4487.

Mohsan, S. A. H., Khan, M. A., Noor, F., Ullah, I., & Alsharif, M. H. (2022). Towards the unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs): A comprehensive review. Drones, 6 (6), 147.

Nex, F., Armenakis, C., Cramer, M., Cucci, D. A., Gerke, M., Honkavaara, E., ... & Skaloud, J. (2022). UAV in the advent of the twenties: Where we stand and what is next.  ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing ,  184 , 215–242.

Notteboom, T., & Rodrigue, J. P. (2017). Re-assessing port-hinterland relationships in the context of global commodity chains. In  Ports, Cities, and Global Supply Chains  (pp. 67–82). Routledge.

Preindl, R., Nikolopoulos, K., & Litsiou, K. (2020). Transformation strategies for the supply chain: The impact of Industry 40 and digital transformation. In Supply Chain Forum: An International Journal, 21 (1), 26–34. Taylor & Francis.

Qadir, Z., Ullah, F., Munawar, H. S., & Al-Turjman, F. (2021). Addressing disasters in smart cities through UAVs path planning and 5G communications: A systematic review. Computer Communications, 168 , 114–135.

Rak, J., Papadimitriou, D., Niedermayer, H., & Romero, P. (2017). Information-driven network resilience: Research challenges and perspectives. Optical Switching and Networking, 23 , 156–178.

Rejeb, A., Rejeb, K., Simske, S. J., & Treiblmaier, H. (2023). Drones for supply chain management and logistics: A review and research agenda. International Journal of Logistics Research and Applications, 26 (6), 708–731.

Rogers, Z. S., Golara, S., Abdusalam, Y., & Rogers, D. S. (2020). A sharing-enabled portfolio approach to distribution. Transportation Journal, 59 (2), 99–128.

Shakhatreh, H., Sawalmeh, A. H., Al-Fuqaha, A., Dou, Z., Almaita, E., Khalil, I., ... & Guizani, M. (2019). Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs): A survey on civil applications and key research challenges.  Ieee Access ,  7 , 48572–48634.

Sharma, S. K., & Singh, A. P. (2023). Urban logistics stakeholder priority assessment to improve urban planning policy. International Journal of Construction Management, 23 (16), 2869–2878.

Sorooshian, S., Khademi Sharifabad, S., Parsaee, M., & Afshari, A. R. (2022). Toward a modern last-mile delivery: Consequences and obstacles of intelligent technology. Applied System Innovation, 5 (4), 82.

Tamke, F., & Buscher, U. (2023). The vehicle routing problem with drones and drone speed selection. Computers & Operations Research, 152 , 106112.

Thackara, J. (2006).  In the bubble: Designing in a complex world . MIT Press.

Uyarra, E., Zabala-Iturriagagoitia, J. M., Flanagan, K., & Magro, E. (2020). Public procurement, innovation and industrial policy: Rationales, roles, capabilities and implementation. Research Policy, 49 (1), 103844.

Vanderroost, M., Ragaert, P., Verwaeren, J., De Meulenaer, B., De Baets, B., & Devlieghere, F. (2017). The digitization of a food package’s life cycle: Existing and emerging computer systems in the logistics and post-logistics phase. Computers in Industry, 87 , 15–30.

Vermesan, O., Eisenhauer, M., Sundmaeker, H., Guillemin, P., Serrano, M., Tragos, E. Z., ... & Bahr, R. (2022). Internet of things cognitive transformation technology research trends and applications.  Cognitive Hyperconnected Digital Transformation , 17–95.

Wilson, C. (2007). Network centric operations: Background and oversight issues for congress . Congressional Research Service.

Google Scholar  

Zhang, J., & Li, Y. (2023). Collaborative vehicle-drone distribution network optimization for perishable products in the epidemic situation. Computers & Operations Research, 149 , 106039.

Zhang, M. (2023). Consumer behavior analysis based on Internet of Things platform and the development of precision marketing strategy for fresh food e-commerce. PeerJ Computer Science, 9 , e1531.

Zhao, G. H., Jia, P., & Zhou, A. M. (2020). Improved degree centrality for directed-weighted network. Journal of Computer Applications, 40 , 141–145.

Zhu, X., Cai, L., Lai, P. L., Wang, X., & Ma, F. (2023). Evolution, challenges, and opportunities of transportation methods in the last-mile delivery process. Systems, 11 (10), 509.

Zhu, X., Pasch, T. J., & Bergstrom, A. (2020). Understanding the structure of risk belief systems concerning drone delivery: A network analysis. Technology in Society, 62 , 101262.

Download references

This research was supported by the Sichuan key research program (No. 2023YFG0054) and the Safety Foundation of Civil Aviation Administration of China (No. [2022]146).

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

College of Air Traffic Management, Civil Aviation Flight University of China, 618307, Guanghan, China

Long-Yang Huang, Si-Yi Li, Bo-Zhi Zhao & Cheng-Long Li

The Second Research Institute of Civil Aviation Administration of China, 610041, Chengdu, Sichuan, China

Civil Unmanned Aircraft Traffic Management Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan, China

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Xiang Zou .

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Huang, LY., Li, SY., Zou, X. et al. Knowledge-Driven Logistics Transformation: Complex Networks and UAVs in Distribution. J Knowl Econ (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-024-01984-z

Download citation

Received : 03 January 2024

Accepted : 10 April 2024

Published : 16 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-024-01984-z

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Logistics UAV
• Complex networks
• Site selection
• Public flight paths
• Distribution efficiency
• Geometric center
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

Coming out of the ashes we rise: Experiences of culturally and linguistically diverse international nursing students at two Australian universities during the Covid-19 pandemic

• Find this author on Google Scholar
• Find this author on PubMed
• Search for this author on this site
• ORCID record for Eric Lim
• For correspondence: [email protected]
• ORCID record for Linda Ng
• ORCID record for Huaqiong Zhou
• ORCID record for Ambili Nair
• ORCID record for Fatch Kalembo
• Info/History
• Preview PDF

Background and aim: Research on international students conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic has persistently highlighted the vulnerabilities and challenges that they experienced when staying in the host country to continue with their studies. The findings from such research can inevitably create a negative image of international students and their ability to respond to challenges during unprecedented times. Therefore, this paper took a different stance and reported on a qualitative study that explored culturally and linguistically diverse (CaLD) international nursing students who overcame the challenges brought about by the pandemic to continue with their studies in Australia. Method: A descriptive qualitative research design guided by the processes of constructivist grounded theory was selected to ascertain insights from participants' experiences of studying abroad in Australia during the COVID-19 pandemic. Results: Three themes emerged from the collected data that described the participants' lived experiences, and they were: 1) Viewing international education as the pursuit of a better life, 2) Focusing on personal growth, and 3) Coming out of the ashes we rise. Discussion: The findings highlight the importance of recognising the investments and sacrifices that CaLD international students and their families make in pursuit of international tertiary education. The findings also underscore the importance of acknowledging the qualities that CaLD international students have to achieve self-growth and ultimately self-efficacy as they stay in the host country during a pandemic. Conclusion: Future research should focus on identifying strategies that are useful for CaLD international nursing students to experience personal growth and ultimately self-efficacy and continue with their studies in the host country during times of uncertainty such as a pandemic.

Competing Interest Statement

The authors have declared no competing interest.

Funding Statement

This study did not receive any funding

Author Declarations

I confirm all relevant ethical guidelines have been followed, and any necessary IRB and/or ethics committee approvals have been obtained.

The details of the IRB/oversight body that provided approval or exemption for the research described are given below:

Ethical approval was obtained from Curtin University Human Research Ethics Office (HRE2022-0238) and The University of Southern Queensland Ethical Review Committee (H22REA114).

I confirm that all necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived, and that any patient/participant/sample identifiers included were not known to anyone (e.g., hospital staff, patients or participants themselves) outside the research group so cannot be used to identify individuals.

I understand that all clinical trials and any other prospective interventional studies must be registered with an ICMJE-approved registry, such as ClinicalTrials.gov. I confirm that any such study reported in the manuscript has been registered and the trial registration ID is provided (note: if posting a prospective study registered retrospectively, please provide a statement in the trial ID field explaining why the study was not registered in advance).

I have followed all appropriate research reporting guidelines, such as any relevant EQUATOR Network research reporting checklist(s) and other pertinent material, if applicable.

Data Availability

All data produced in the present study are available upon reasonable request to the authors

View the discussion thread.

Thank you for your interest in spreading the word about medRxiv.

NOTE: Your email address is requested solely to identify you as the sender of this article.

Citation Manager Formats

• EndNote (tagged)
• EndNote 8 (xml)
• RefWorks Tagged
• Ref Manager
• Tweet Widget
• Facebook Like
• Google Plus One
• Addiction Medicine (324)
• Allergy and Immunology (627)
• Anesthesia (163)
• Cardiovascular Medicine (2371)
• Dentistry and Oral Medicine (289)
• Dermatology (206)
• Emergency Medicine (379)
• Endocrinology (including Diabetes Mellitus and Metabolic Disease) (836)
• Epidemiology (11768)
• Forensic Medicine (10)
• Gastroenterology (702)
• Genetic and Genomic Medicine (3736)
• Geriatric Medicine (350)
• Health Economics (633)
• Health Informatics (2395)
• Health Policy (932)
• Health Systems and Quality Improvement (896)
• Hematology (341)
• HIV/AIDS (782)
• Infectious Diseases (except HIV/AIDS) (13308)
• Intensive Care and Critical Care Medicine (767)
• Medical Education (365)
• Medical Ethics (104)
• Nephrology (398)
• Neurology (3501)
• Nursing (198)
• Nutrition (524)
• Obstetrics and Gynecology (674)
• Occupational and Environmental Health (663)
• Oncology (1823)
• Ophthalmology (537)
• Orthopedics (218)
• Otolaryngology (287)
• Pain Medicine (232)
• Palliative Medicine (66)
• Pathology (446)
• Pediatrics (1033)
• Pharmacology and Therapeutics (426)
• Primary Care Research (420)
• Psychiatry and Clinical Psychology (3175)
• Public and Global Health (6138)
• Radiology and Imaging (1280)
• Rehabilitation Medicine and Physical Therapy (747)
• Respiratory Medicine (826)
• Rheumatology (379)
• Sexual and Reproductive Health (372)
• Sports Medicine (323)
• Surgery (402)
• Toxicology (50)
• Transplantation (172)
• Urology (145)