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How to Write an Abstract (With Examples)

Sarah Oakley

Table of Contents

What is an abstract in a paper, how long should an abstract be, 5 steps for writing an abstract, examples of an abstract, how prowritingaid can help you write an abstract.

If you are writing a scientific research paper or a book proposal, you need to know how to write an abstract, which summarizes the contents of the paper or book.

When researchers are looking for peer-reviewed papers to use in their studies, the first place they will check is the abstract to see if it applies to their work. Therefore, your abstract is one of the most important parts of your entire paper.

In this article, we’ll explain what an abstract is, what it should include, and how to write one.

An abstract is a concise summary of the details within a report. Some abstracts give more details than others, but the main things you’ll be talking about are why you conducted the research, what you did, and what the results show.

When a reader is deciding whether to read your paper completely, they will first look at the abstract. You need to be concise in your abstract and give the reader the most important information so they can determine if they want to read the whole paper.

Remember that an abstract is the last thing you’ll want to write for the research paper because it directly references parts of the report. If you haven’t written the report, you won’t know what to include in your abstract.

If you are writing a paper for a journal or an assignment, the publication or academic institution might have specific formatting rules for how long your abstract should be. However, if they don’t, most abstracts are between 150 and 300 words long.

A short word count means your writing has to be precise and without filler words or phrases. Once you’ve written a first draft, you can always use an editing tool, such as ProWritingAid, to identify areas where you can reduce words and increase readability.

If your abstract is over the word limit, and you’ve edited it but still can’t figure out how to reduce it further, your abstract might include some things that aren’t needed. Here’s a list of three elements you can remove from your abstract:

Discussion : You don’t need to go into detail about the findings of your research because your reader will find your discussion within the paper.

Definition of terms : Your readers are interested the field you are writing about, so they are likely to understand the terms you are using. If not, they can always look them up. Your readers do not expect you to give a definition of terms in your abstract.

References and citations : You can mention there have been studies that support or have inspired your research, but you do not need to give details as the reader will find them in your bibliography.

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If you’ve never written an abstract before, and you’re wondering how to write an abstract, we’ve got some steps for you to follow. It’s best to start with planning your abstract, so we’ve outlined the details you need to include in your plan before you write.

Remember to consider your audience when you’re planning and writing your abstract. They are likely to skim read your abstract, so you want to be sure your abstract delivers all the information they’re expecting to see at key points.

1. What Should an Abstract Include?

Abstracts have a lot of information to cover in a short number of words, so it’s important to know what to include. There are three elements that need to be present in your abstract:

Your context is the background for where your research sits within your field of study. You should briefly mention any previous scientific papers or experiments that have led to your hypothesis and how research develops in those studies.

Your hypothesis is your prediction of what your study will show. As you are writing your abstract after you have conducted your research, you should still include your hypothesis in your abstract because it shows the motivation for your paper.

Throughout your abstract, you also need to include keywords and phrases that will help researchers to find your article in the databases they’re searching. Make sure the keywords are specific to your field of study and the subject you’re reporting on, otherwise your article might not reach the relevant audience.

2. Can You Use First Person in an Abstract?

You might think that first person is too informal for a research paper, but it’s not. Historically, writers of academic reports avoided writing in first person to uphold the formality standards of the time. However, first person is more accepted in research papers in modern times.

If you’re still unsure whether to write in first person for your abstract, refer to any style guide rules imposed by the journal you’re writing for or your teachers if you are writing an assignment.

3. Abstract Structure

Some scientific journals have strict rules on how to structure an abstract, so it’s best to check those first. If you don’t have any style rules to follow, try using the IMRaD structure, which stands for Introduction, Methodology, Results, and Discussion.

Following the IMRaD structure, start with an introduction. The amount of background information you should include depends on your specific research area. Adding a broad overview gives you less room to include other details. Remember to include your hypothesis in this section.

The next part of your abstract should cover your methodology. Try to include the following details if they apply to your study:

What type of research was conducted?

How were the test subjects sampled?

What were the sample sizes?

What was done to each group?

How long was the experiment?

How was data recorded and interpreted?

Following the methodology, include a sentence or two about the results, which is where your reader will determine if your research supports or contradicts their own investigations.

The results are also where most people will want to find out what your outcomes were, even if they are just mildly interested in your research area. You should be specific about all the details but as concise as possible.

The last few sentences are your conclusion. It needs to explain how your findings affect the context and whether your hypothesis was correct. Include the primary take-home message, additional findings of importance, and perspective. Also explain whether there is scope for further research into the subject of your report.

Your conclusion should be honest and give the reader the ultimate message that your research shows. Readers trust the conclusion, so make sure you’re not fabricating the results of your research. Some readers won’t read your entire paper, but this section will tell them if it’s worth them referencing it in their own study.

4. How to Start an Abstract

The first line of your abstract should give your reader the context of your report by providing background information. You can use this sentence to imply the motivation for your research.

You don’t need to use a hook phrase or device in your first sentence to grab the reader’s attention. Your reader will look to establish relevance quickly, so readability and clarity are more important than trying to persuade the reader to read on.

5. How to Format an Abstract

Most abstracts use the same formatting rules, which help the reader identify the abstract so they know where to look for it.

Here’s a list of formatting guidelines for writing an abstract:

Stick to one paragraph

Use block formatting with no indentation at the beginning

Put your abstract straight after the title and acknowledgements pages

Use present or past tense, not future tense

There are two primary types of abstract you could write for your paper—descriptive and informative.

An informative abstract is the most common, and they follow the structure mentioned previously. They are longer than descriptive abstracts because they cover more details.

Descriptive abstracts differ from informative abstracts, as they don’t include as much discussion or detail. The word count for a descriptive abstract is between 50 and 150 words.

Here is an example of an informative abstract:

A growing trend exists for authors to employ a more informal writing style that uses “we” in academic writing to acknowledge one’s stance and engagement. However, few studies have compared the ways in which the first-person pronoun “we” is used in the abstracts and conclusions of empirical papers. To address this lacuna in the literature, this study conducted a systematic corpus analysis of the use of “we” in the abstracts and conclusions of 400 articles collected from eight leading electrical and electronic (EE) engineering journals. The abstracts and conclusions were extracted to form two subcorpora, and an integrated framework was applied to analyze and seek to explain how we-clusters and we-collocations were employed. Results revealed whether authors’ use of first-person pronouns partially depends on a journal policy. The trend of using “we” showed that a yearly increase occurred in the frequency of “we” in EE journal papers, as well as the existence of three “we-use” types in the article conclusions and abstracts: exclusive, inclusive, and ambiguous. Other possible “we-use” alternatives such as “I” and other personal pronouns were used very rarely—if at all—in either section. These findings also suggest that the present tense was used more in article abstracts, but the present perfect tense was the most preferred tense in article conclusions. Both research and pedagogical implications are proffered and critically discussed.

Wang, S., Tseng, W.-T., & Johanson, R. (2021). To We or Not to We: Corpus-Based Research on First-Person Pronoun Use in Abstracts and Conclusions. SAGE Open, 11(2).

Here is an example of a descriptive abstract:

From the 1850s to the present, considerable criminological attention has focused on the development of theoretically-significant systems for classifying crime. This article reviews and attempts to evaluate a number of these efforts, and we conclude that further work on this basic task is needed. The latter part of the article explicates a conceptual foundation for a crime pattern classification system, and offers a preliminary taxonomy of crime.

Farr, K. A., & Gibbons, D. C. (1990). Observations on the Development of Crime Categories. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 34(3), 223–237.

If you want to ensure your abstract is grammatically correct and easy to read, you can use ProWritingAid to edit it. The software integrates with Microsoft Word, Google Docs, and most web browsers, so you can make the most of it wherever you’re writing your paper.

Before you edit with ProWritingAid, make sure the suggestions you are seeing are relevant for your document by changing the document type to “Abstract” within the Academic writing style section.

You can use the Readability report to check your abstract for places to improve the clarity of your writing. Some suggestions might show you where to remove words, which is great if you’re over your word count.

We hope the five steps and examples we’ve provided help you write a great abstract for your research paper.

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Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper

Definition and Purpose of Abstracts

An abstract is a short summary of your (published or unpublished) research paper, usually about a paragraph (c. 6-7 sentences, 150-250 words) long. A well-written abstract serves multiple purposes:

• an abstract lets readers get the gist or essence of your paper or article quickly, in order to decide whether to read the full paper;
• an abstract prepares readers to follow the detailed information, analyses, and arguments in your full paper;
• and, later, an abstract helps readers remember key points from your paper.

It’s also worth remembering that search engines and bibliographic databases use abstracts, as well as the title, to identify key terms for indexing your published paper. So what you include in your abstract and in your title are crucial for helping other researchers find your paper or article.

If you are writing an abstract for a course paper, your professor may give you specific guidelines for what to include and how to organize your abstract. Similarly, academic journals often have specific requirements for abstracts. So in addition to following the advice on this page, you should be sure to look for and follow any guidelines from the course or journal you’re writing for.

The Contents of an Abstract

Abstracts contain most of the following kinds of information in brief form. The body of your paper will, of course, develop and explain these ideas much more fully. As you will see in the samples below, the proportion of your abstract that you devote to each kind of information—and the sequence of that information—will vary, depending on the nature and genre of the paper that you are summarizing in your abstract. And in some cases, some of this information is implied, rather than stated explicitly. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , which is widely used in the social sciences, gives specific guidelines for what to include in the abstract for different kinds of papers—for empirical studies, literature reviews or meta-analyses, theoretical papers, methodological papers, and case studies.

Here are the typical kinds of information found in most abstracts:

• the context or background information for your research; the general topic under study; the specific topic of your research
• the central questions or statement of the problem your research addresses
• what’s already known about this question, what previous research has done or shown
• the main reason(s) , the exigency, the rationale , the goals for your research—Why is it important to address these questions? Are you, for example, examining a new topic? Why is that topic worth examining? Are you filling a gap in previous research? Applying new methods to take a fresh look at existing ideas or data? Resolving a dispute within the literature in your field? . . .
• your research and/or analytical methods
• your main findings , results , or arguments
• the significance or implications of your findings or arguments.

Your abstract should be intelligible on its own, without a reader’s having to read your entire paper. And in an abstract, you usually do not cite references—most of your abstract will describe what you have studied in your research and what you have found and what you argue in your paper. In the body of your paper, you will cite the specific literature that informs your research.

When to Write Your Abstract

Although you might be tempted to write your abstract first because it will appear as the very first part of your paper, it’s a good idea to wait to write your abstract until after you’ve drafted your full paper, so that you know what you’re summarizing.

What follows are some sample abstracts in published papers or articles, all written by faculty at UW-Madison who come from a variety of disciplines. We have annotated these samples to help you see the work that these authors are doing within their abstracts.

Choosing Verb Tenses within Your Abstract

The social science sample (Sample 1) below uses the present tense to describe general facts and interpretations that have been and are currently true, including the prevailing explanation for the social phenomenon under study. That abstract also uses the present tense to describe the methods, the findings, the arguments, and the implications of the findings from their new research study. The authors use the past tense to describe previous research.

The humanities sample (Sample 2) below uses the past tense to describe completed events in the past (the texts created in the pulp fiction industry in the 1970s and 80s) and uses the present tense to describe what is happening in those texts, to explain the significance or meaning of those texts, and to describe the arguments presented in the article.

The science samples (Samples 3 and 4) below use the past tense to describe what previous research studies have done and the research the authors have conducted, the methods they have followed, and what they have found. In their rationale or justification for their research (what remains to be done), they use the present tense. They also use the present tense to introduce their study (in Sample 3, “Here we report . . .”) and to explain the significance of their study (In Sample 3, This reprogramming . . . “provides a scalable cell source for. . .”).

Sample Abstract 1

From the social sciences.

Reporting new findings about the reasons for increasing economic homogamy among spouses

Gonalons-Pons, Pilar, and Christine R. Schwartz. “Trends in Economic Homogamy: Changes in Assortative Mating or the Division of Labor in Marriage?” Demography , vol. 54, no. 3, 2017, pp. 985-1005.

Sample Abstract 2

From the humanities.

Analyzing underground pulp fiction publications in Tanzania, this article makes an argument about the cultural significance of those publications

Emily Callaci. “Street Textuality: Socialism, Masculinity, and Urban Belonging in Tanzania’s Pulp Fiction Publishing Industry, 1975-1985.” Comparative Studies in Society and History , vol. 59, no. 1, 2017, pp. 183-210.

Sample Abstract/Summary 3

From the sciences.

Reporting a new method for reprogramming adult mouse fibroblasts into induced cardiac progenitor cells

Lalit, Pratik A., Max R. Salick, Daryl O. Nelson, Jayne M. Squirrell, Christina M. Shafer, Neel G. Patel, Imaan Saeed, Eric G. Schmuck, Yogananda S. Markandeya, Rachel Wong, Martin R. Lea, Kevin W. Eliceiri, Timothy A. Hacker, Wendy C. Crone, Michael Kyba, Daniel J. Garry, Ron Stewart, James A. Thomson, Karen M. Downs, Gary E. Lyons, and Timothy J. Kamp. “Lineage Reprogramming of Fibroblasts into Proliferative Induced Cardiac Progenitor Cells by Defined Factors.” Cell Stem Cell , vol. 18, 2016, pp. 354-367.

Sample Abstract 4, a Structured Abstract

Reporting results about the effectiveness of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis, from a rigorously controlled study

Note: This journal requires authors to organize their abstract into four specific sections, with strict word limits. Because the headings for this structured abstract are self-explanatory, we have chosen not to add annotations to this sample abstract.

Wald, Ellen R., David Nash, and Jens Eickhoff. “Effectiveness of Amoxicillin/Clavulanate Potassium in the Treatment of Acute Bacterial Sinusitis in Children.” Pediatrics , vol. 124, no. 1, 2009, pp. 9-15.

“OBJECTIVE: The role of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis (ABS) in children is controversial. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of high-dose amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate in the treatment of children diagnosed with ABS.

METHODS : This was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Children 1 to 10 years of age with a clinical presentation compatible with ABS were eligible for participation. Patients were stratified according to age (<6 or ≥6 years) and clinical severity and randomly assigned to receive either amoxicillin (90 mg/kg) with potassium clavulanate (6.4 mg/kg) or placebo. A symptom survey was performed on days 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 20, and 30. Patients were examined on day 14. Children’s conditions were rated as cured, improved, or failed according to scoring rules.

RESULTS: Two thousand one hundred thirty-five children with respiratory complaints were screened for enrollment; 139 (6.5%) had ABS. Fifty-eight patients were enrolled, and 56 were randomly assigned. The mean age was 6630 months. Fifty (89%) patients presented with persistent symptoms, and 6 (11%) presented with nonpersistent symptoms. In 24 (43%) children, the illness was classified as mild, whereas in the remaining 32 (57%) children it was severe. Of the 28 children who received the antibiotic, 14 (50%) were cured, 4 (14%) were improved, 4(14%) experienced treatment failure, and 6 (21%) withdrew. Of the 28children who received placebo, 4 (14%) were cured, 5 (18%) improved, and 19 (68%) experienced treatment failure. Children receiving the antibiotic were more likely to be cured (50% vs 14%) and less likely to have treatment failure (14% vs 68%) than children receiving the placebo.

CONCLUSIONS : ABS is a common complication of viral upper respiratory infections. Amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate results in significantly more cures and fewer failures than placebo, according to parental report of time to resolution.” (9)

Some Excellent Advice about Writing Abstracts for Basic Science Research Papers, by Professor Adriano Aguzzi from the Institute of Neuropathology at the University of Zurich:

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• How to Write an Abstract

Expedite peer review, increase search-ability, and set the tone for your study

The abstract is your chance to let your readers know what they can expect from your article. Learn how to write a clear, and concise abstract that will keep your audience reading.

How your abstract impacts editorial evaluation and future readership

After the title , the abstract is the second-most-read part of your article. A good abstract can help to expedite peer review and, if your article is accepted for publication, it’s an important tool for readers to find and evaluate your work. Editors use your abstract when they first assess your article. Prospective reviewers see it when they decide whether to accept an invitation to review. Once published, the abstract gets indexed in PubMed and Google Scholar , as well as library systems and other popular databases. Like the title, your abstract influences keyword search results. Readers will use it to decide whether to read the rest of your article. Other researchers will use it to evaluate your work for inclusion in systematic reviews and meta-analysis. It should be a concise standalone piece that accurately represents your research. 

What to include in an abstract

The main challenge you’ll face when writing your abstract is keeping it concise AND fitting in all the information you need. Depending on your subject area the journal may require a structured abstract following specific headings. A structured abstract helps your readers understand your study more easily. If your journal doesn’t require a structured abstract it’s still a good idea to follow a similar format, just present the abstract as one paragraph without headings. 

Background or Introduction – What is currently known? Start with a brief, 2 or 3 sentence, introduction to the research area. 

Objectives or Aims – What is the study and why did you do it? Clearly state the research question you’re trying to answer.

Methods – What did you do? Explain what you did and how you did it. Include important information about your methods, but avoid the low-level specifics. Some disciplines have specific requirements for abstract methods. 

• CONSORT for randomized trials.
• STROBE for observational studies
• PRISMA for systematic reviews and meta-analyses

Results – What did you find? Briefly give the key findings of your study. Include key numeric data (including confidence intervals or p values), where possible.

Conclusions – What did you conclude? Tell the reader why your findings matter, and what this could mean for the ‘bigger picture’ of this area of research. 

Writing tips

The main challenge you may find when writing your abstract is keeping it concise AND convering all the information you need to.

• Keep it concise and to the point. Most journals have a maximum word count, so check guidelines before you write the abstract to save time editing it later.
• Write for your audience. Are they specialists in your specific field? Are they cross-disciplinary? Are they non-specialists? If you’re writing for a general audience, or your research could be of interest to the public keep your language as straightforward as possible. If you’re writing in English, do remember that not all of your readers will necessarily be native English speakers.
• Focus on key results, conclusions and take home messages.
• Write your paper first, then create the abstract as a summary.
• Check the journal requirements before you write your abstract, eg. required subheadings.
• Include keywords or phrases to help readers search for your work in indexing databases like PubMed or Google Scholar.
• Double and triple check your abstract for spelling and grammar errors. These kind of errors can give potential reviewers the impression that your research isn’t sound, and can make it easier to find reviewers who accept the invitation to review your manuscript. Your abstract should be a taste of what is to come in the rest of your article.

Don’t

• Sensationalize your research.
• Speculate about where this research might lead in the future.
• Use abbreviations or acronyms (unless absolutely necessary or unless they’re widely known, eg. DNA).
• Repeat yourself unnecessarily, eg. “Methods: We used X technique. Results: Using X technique, we found…”
• Contradict anything in the rest of your manuscript.
• Include content that isn’t also covered in the main manuscript.
• Include citations or references.

Tip: How to edit your work

Editing is challenging, especially if you are acting as both a writer and an editor. Read our guidelines for advice on how to refine your work, including useful tips for setting your intentions, re-review, and consultation with colleagues.

• How to Write a Great Title
• How to Write Your Methods
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There’s a lot to consider when deciding where to submit your work. Learn how to choose a journal that will help your study reach its audience, while reflecting your values as a researcher…

What this handout is about

This handout provides definitions and examples of the two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. It also provides guidelines for constructing an abstract and general tips for you to keep in mind when drafting. Finally, it includes a few examples of abstracts broken down into their component parts.

What is an abstract?

An abstract is a self-contained, short, and powerful statement that describes a larger work. Components vary according to discipline. An abstract of a social science or scientific work may contain the scope, purpose, results, and contents of the work. An abstract of a humanities work may contain the thesis, background, and conclusion of the larger work. An abstract is not a review, nor does it evaluate the work being abstracted. While it contains key words found in the larger work, the abstract is an original document rather than an excerpted passage.

Why write an abstract?

You may write an abstract for various reasons. The two most important are selection and indexing. Abstracts allow readers who may be interested in a longer work to quickly decide whether it is worth their time to read it. Also, many online databases use abstracts to index larger works. Therefore, abstracts should contain keywords and phrases that allow for easy searching.

Say you are beginning a research project on how Brazilian newspapers helped Brazil’s ultra-liberal president Luiz Ignácio da Silva wrest power from the traditional, conservative power base. A good first place to start your research is to search Dissertation Abstracts International for all dissertations that deal with the interaction between newspapers and politics. “Newspapers and politics” returned 569 hits. A more selective search of “newspapers and Brazil” returned 22 hits. That is still a fair number of dissertations. Titles can sometimes help winnow the field, but many titles are not very descriptive. For example, one dissertation is titled “Rhetoric and Riot in Rio de Janeiro.” It is unclear from the title what this dissertation has to do with newspapers in Brazil. One option would be to download or order the entire dissertation on the chance that it might speak specifically to the topic. A better option is to read the abstract. In this case, the abstract reveals the main focus of the dissertation:

This dissertation examines the role of newspaper editors in the political turmoil and strife that characterized late First Empire Rio de Janeiro (1827-1831). Newspaper editors and their journals helped change the political culture of late First Empire Rio de Janeiro by involving the people in the discussion of state. This change in political culture is apparent in Emperor Pedro I’s gradual loss of control over the mechanisms of power. As the newspapers became more numerous and powerful, the Emperor lost his legitimacy in the eyes of the people. To explore the role of the newspapers in the political events of the late First Empire, this dissertation analyzes all available newspapers published in Rio de Janeiro from 1827 to 1831. Newspapers and their editors were leading forces in the effort to remove power from the hands of the ruling elite and place it under the control of the people. In the process, newspapers helped change how politics operated in the constitutional monarchy of Brazil.

From this abstract you now know that although the dissertation has nothing to do with modern Brazilian politics, it does cover the role of newspapers in changing traditional mechanisms of power. After reading the abstract, you can make an informed judgment about whether the dissertation would be worthwhile to read.

Besides selection, the other main purpose of the abstract is for indexing. Most article databases in the online catalog of the library enable you to search abstracts. This allows for quick retrieval by users and limits the extraneous items recalled by a “full-text” search. However, for an abstract to be useful in an online retrieval system, it must incorporate the key terms that a potential researcher would use to search. For example, if you search Dissertation Abstracts International using the keywords “France” “revolution” and “politics,” the search engine would search through all the abstracts in the database that included those three words. Without an abstract, the search engine would be forced to search titles, which, as we have seen, may not be fruitful, or else search the full text. It’s likely that a lot more than 60 dissertations have been written with those three words somewhere in the body of the entire work. By incorporating keywords into the abstract, the author emphasizes the central topics of the work and gives prospective readers enough information to make an informed judgment about the applicability of the work.

When do people write abstracts?

• when submitting articles to journals, especially online journals
• when applying for research grants
• when writing a book proposal
• when completing the Ph.D. dissertation or M.A. thesis
• when writing a proposal for a conference paper
• when writing a proposal for a book chapter

Most often, the author of the entire work (or prospective work) writes the abstract. However, there are professional abstracting services that hire writers to draft abstracts of other people’s work. In a work with multiple authors, the first author usually writes the abstract. Undergraduates are sometimes asked to draft abstracts of books/articles for classmates who have not read the larger work.

Types of abstracts

There are two types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. They have different aims, so as a consequence they have different components and styles. There is also a third type called critical, but it is rarely used. If you want to find out more about writing a critique or a review of a work, see the UNC Writing Center handout on writing a literature review . If you are unsure which type of abstract you should write, ask your instructor (if the abstract is for a class) or read other abstracts in your field or in the journal where you are submitting your article.

Descriptive abstracts

A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract describes the work being abstracted. Some people consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short—100 words or less.

Informative abstracts

The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the writer presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the complete article/paper/book. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract (purpose, methods, scope) but also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is rarely more than 10% of the length of the entire work. In the case of a longer work, it may be much less.

Here are examples of a descriptive and an informative abstract of this handout on abstracts . Descriptive abstract:

The two most common abstract types—descriptive and informative—are described and examples of each are provided.

Informative abstract:

Abstracts present the essential elements of a longer work in a short and powerful statement. The purpose of an abstract is to provide prospective readers the opportunity to judge the relevance of the longer work to their projects. Abstracts also include the key terms found in the longer work and the purpose and methods of the research. Authors abstract various longer works, including book proposals, dissertations, and online journal articles. There are two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. A descriptive abstract briefly describes the longer work, while an informative abstract presents all the main arguments and important results. This handout provides examples of various types of abstracts and instructions on how to construct one.

Which type should I use?

Your best bet in this case is to ask your instructor or refer to the instructions provided by the publisher. You can also make a guess based on the length allowed; i.e., 100-120 words = descriptive; 250+ words = informative.

How do I write an abstract?

The format of your abstract will depend on the work being abstracted. An abstract of a scientific research paper will contain elements not found in an abstract of a literature article, and vice versa. However, all abstracts share several mandatory components, and there are also some optional parts that you can decide to include or not. When preparing to draft your abstract, keep the following key process elements in mind:

• Reason for writing: What is the importance of the research? Why would a reader be interested in the larger work?
• Problem: What problem does this work attempt to solve? What is the scope of the project? What is the main argument/thesis/claim?
• Methodology: An abstract of a scientific work may include specific models or approaches used in the larger study. Other abstracts may describe the types of evidence used in the research.
• Results: Again, an abstract of a scientific work may include specific data that indicates the results of the project. Other abstracts may discuss the findings in a more general way.
• Implications: What changes should be implemented as a result of the findings of the work? How does this work add to the body of knowledge on the topic?

(This list of elements is adapted with permission from Philip Koopman, “How to Write an Abstract.” )

All abstracts include:

• A full citation of the source, preceding the abstract.
• The most important information first.
• The same type and style of language found in the original, including technical language.
• Key words and phrases that quickly identify the content and focus of the work.
• Clear, concise, and powerful language.

Abstracts may include:

• The thesis of the work, usually in the first sentence.
• Background information that places the work in the larger body of literature.
• The same chronological structure as the original work.

How not to write an abstract:

• Do not refer extensively to other works.
• Do not add information not contained in the original work.
• Do not define terms.

If you are abstracting your own writing

When abstracting your own work, it may be difficult to condense a piece of writing that you have agonized over for weeks (or months, or even years) into a 250-word statement. There are some tricks that you could use to make it easier, however.

Reverse outlining:

This technique is commonly used when you are having trouble organizing your own writing. The process involves writing down the main idea of each paragraph on a separate piece of paper– see our short video . For the purposes of writing an abstract, try grouping the main ideas of each section of the paper into a single sentence. Practice grouping ideas using webbing or color coding .

For a scientific paper, you may have sections titled Purpose, Methods, Results, and Discussion. Each one of these sections will be longer than one paragraph, but each is grouped around a central idea. Use reverse outlining to discover the central idea in each section and then distill these ideas into one statement.

Cut and paste:

To create a first draft of an abstract of your own work, you can read through the entire paper and cut and paste sentences that capture key passages. This technique is useful for social science research with findings that cannot be encapsulated by neat numbers or concrete results. A well-written humanities draft will have a clear and direct thesis statement and informative topic sentences for paragraphs or sections. Isolate these sentences in a separate document and work on revising them into a unified paragraph.

If you are abstracting someone else’s writing

When abstracting something you have not written, you cannot summarize key ideas just by cutting and pasting. Instead, you must determine what a prospective reader would want to know about the work. There are a few techniques that will help you in this process:

Identify key terms:

Search through the entire document for key terms that identify the purpose, scope, and methods of the work. Pay close attention to the Introduction (or Purpose) and the Conclusion (or Discussion). These sections should contain all the main ideas and key terms in the paper. When writing the abstract, be sure to incorporate the key terms.

Highlight key phrases and sentences:

Instead of cutting and pasting the actual words, try highlighting sentences or phrases that appear to be central to the work. Then, in a separate document, rewrite the sentences and phrases in your own words.

Don’t look back:

After reading the entire work, put it aside and write a paragraph about the work without referring to it. In the first draft, you may not remember all the key terms or the results, but you will remember what the main point of the work was. Remember not to include any information you did not get from the work being abstracted.

Revise, revise, revise

No matter what type of abstract you are writing, or whether you are abstracting your own work or someone else’s, the most important step in writing an abstract is to revise early and often. When revising, delete all extraneous words and incorporate meaningful and powerful words. The idea is to be as clear and complete as possible in the shortest possible amount of space. The Word Count feature of Microsoft Word can help you keep track of how long your abstract is and help you hit your target length.

Example 1: Humanities abstract

Kenneth Tait Andrews, “‘Freedom is a constant struggle’: The dynamics and consequences of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement, 1960-1984” Ph.D. State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1997 DAI-A 59/02, p. 620, Aug 1998

This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so. The time period studied includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies. Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports. This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.

Now let’s break down this abstract into its component parts to see how the author has distilled his entire dissertation into a ~200 word abstract.

What the dissertation does This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so.

How the dissertation does it The time period studied in this dissertation includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies.

What materials are used Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports.

Conclusion This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to movement demands and the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.

Keywords social movements Civil Rights Movement Mississippi voting rights desegregation

Example 2: Science Abstract

Luis Lehner, “Gravitational radiation from black hole spacetimes” Ph.D. University of Pittsburgh, 1998 DAI-B 59/06, p. 2797, Dec 1998

The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search for and analysis of detected signals. The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm. This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.

This science abstract covers much of the same ground as the humanities one, but it asks slightly different questions.

Why do this study The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search and analysis of the detected signals.

What the study does The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm.

Results This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.

Keywords gravitational radiation (GR) spacetimes black holes

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Belcher, Wendy Laura. 2009. Writing Your Journal Article in Twelve Weeks: A Guide to Academic Publishing Success. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Press.

Koopman, Philip. 1997. “How to Write an Abstract.” Carnegie Mellon University. October 1997. http://users.ece.cmu.edu/~koopman/essays/abstract.html .

Lancaster, F.W. 2003. Indexing And Abstracting in Theory and Practice , 3rd ed. London: Facet Publishing.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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• How to Write an Abstract | Steps & Examples

How to Write an Abstract | Steps & Examples

Published on 1 March 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 10 October 2022 by Eoghan Ryan.

An abstract is a short summary of a longer work (such as a dissertation or research paper ). The abstract concisely reports the aims and outcomes of your research, so that readers know exactly what your paper is about.

Although the structure may vary slightly depending on your discipline, your abstract should describe the purpose of your work, the methods you’ve used, and the conclusions you’ve drawn.

One common way to structure your abstract is to use the IMRaD structure. This stands for:

• Introduction

Abstracts are usually around 100–300 words, but there’s often a strict word limit, so make sure to check the relevant requirements.

In a dissertation or thesis , include the abstract on a separate page, after the title page and acknowledgements but before the table of contents .

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Table of contents

Abstract example, when to write an abstract, step 1: introduction, step 2: methods, step 3: results, step 4: discussion, tips for writing an abstract, frequently asked questions about abstracts.

Hover over the different parts of the abstract to see how it is constructed.

This paper examines the role of silent movies as a mode of shared experience in the UK during the early twentieth century. At this time, high immigration rates resulted in a significant percentage of non-English-speaking citizens. These immigrants faced numerous economic and social obstacles, including exclusion from public entertainment and modes of discourse (newspapers, theater, radio).

Incorporating evidence from reviews, personal correspondence, and diaries, this study demonstrates that silent films were an affordable and inclusive source of entertainment. It argues for the accessible economic and representational nature of early cinema. These concerns are particularly evident in the low price of admission and in the democratic nature of the actors’ exaggerated gestures, which allowed the plots and action to be easily grasped by a diverse audience despite language barriers.

Keywords: silent movies, immigration, public discourse, entertainment, early cinema, language barriers.

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You will almost always have to include an abstract when:

• Completing a thesis or dissertation
• Submitting a research paper to an academic journal
• Writing a book proposal
• Applying for research grants

It’s easiest to write your abstract last, because it’s a summary of the work you’ve already done. Your abstract should:

• Be a self-contained text, not an excerpt from your paper
• Be fully understandable on its own
• Reflect the structure of your larger work

Start by clearly defining the purpose of your research. What practical or theoretical problem does the research respond to, or what research question did you aim to answer?

You can include some brief context on the social or academic relevance of your topic, but don’t go into detailed background information. If your abstract uses specialised terms that would be unfamiliar to the average academic reader or that have various different meanings, give a concise definition.

After identifying the problem, state the objective of your research. Use verbs like “investigate,” “test,” “analyse,” or “evaluate” to describe exactly what you set out to do.

This part of the abstract can be written in the present or past simple tense  but should never refer to the future, as the research is already complete.

• This study will investigate the relationship between coffee consumption and productivity.
• This study investigates the relationship between coffee consumption and productivity.

Next, indicate the research methods that you used to answer your question. This part should be a straightforward description of what you did in one or two sentences. It is usually written in the past simple tense, as it refers to completed actions.

• Structured interviews will be conducted with 25 participants.
• Structured interviews were conducted with 25 participants.

Don’t evaluate validity or obstacles here — the goal is not to give an account of the methodology’s strengths and weaknesses, but to give the reader a quick insight into the overall approach and procedures you used.

Next, summarise the main research results . This part of the abstract can be in the present or past simple tense.

• Our analysis has shown a strong correlation between coffee consumption and productivity.
• Our analysis shows a strong correlation between coffee consumption and productivity.
• Our analysis showed a strong correlation between coffee consumption and productivity.

Depending on how long and complex your research is, you may not be able to include all results here. Try to highlight only the most important findings that will allow the reader to understand your conclusions.

Finally, you should discuss the main conclusions of your research : what is your answer to the problem or question? The reader should finish with a clear understanding of the central point that your research has proved or argued. Conclusions are usually written in the present simple tense.

• We concluded that coffee consumption increases productivity.
• We conclude that coffee consumption increases productivity.

If there are important limitations to your research (for example, related to your sample size or methods), you should mention them briefly in the abstract. This allows the reader to accurately assess the credibility and generalisability of your research.

If your aim was to solve a practical problem, your discussion might include recommendations for implementation. If relevant, you can briefly make suggestions for further research.

If your paper will be published, you might have to add a list of keywords at the end of the abstract. These keywords should reference the most important elements of the research to help potential readers find your paper during their own literature searches.

Be aware that some publication manuals, such as APA Style , have specific formatting requirements for these keywords.

It can be a real challenge to condense your whole work into just a couple of hundred words, but the abstract will be the first (and sometimes only) part that people read, so it’s important to get it right. These strategies can help you get started.

Read other abstracts

The best way to learn the conventions of writing an abstract in your discipline is to read other people’s. You probably already read lots of journal article abstracts while conducting your literature review —try using them as a framework for structure and style.

You can also find lots of dissertation abstract examples in thesis and dissertation databases .

Reverse outline

Not all abstracts will contain precisely the same elements. For longer works, you can write your abstract through a process of reverse outlining.

For each chapter or section, list keywords and draft one to two sentences that summarise the central point or argument. This will give you a framework of your abstract’s structure. Next, revise the sentences to make connections and show how the argument develops.

Write clearly and concisely

A good abstract is short but impactful, so make sure every word counts. Each sentence should clearly communicate one main point.

To keep your abstract or summary short and clear:

• Avoid passive sentences: Passive constructions are often unnecessarily long. You can easily make them shorter and clearer by using the active voice.
• Avoid long sentences: Substitute longer expressions for concise expressions or single words (e.g., “In order to” for “To”).
• Avoid obscure jargon: The abstract should be understandable to readers who are not familiar with your topic.
• Avoid repetition and filler words: Replace nouns with pronouns when possible and eliminate unnecessary words.
• Avoid detailed descriptions: An abstract is not expected to provide detailed definitions, background information, or discussions of other scholars’ work. Instead, include this information in the body of your thesis or paper.

If you’re struggling to edit down to the required length, you can get help from expert editors with Scribbr’s professional proofreading services .

Check your formatting

If you are writing a thesis or dissertation or submitting to a journal, there are often specific formatting requirements for the abstract—make sure to check the guidelines and format your work correctly. For APA research papers you can follow the APA abstract format .

Checklist: Abstract

The word count is within the required length, or a maximum of one page.

The abstract appears after the title page and acknowledgements and before the table of contents .

I have clearly stated my research problem and objectives.

I have briefly described my methodology .

I have summarized the most important results .

I have stated my main conclusions .

I have mentioned any important limitations and recommendations.

The abstract can be understood by someone without prior knowledge of the topic.

You've written a great abstract! Use the other checklists to continue improving your thesis or dissertation.

An abstract is a concise summary of an academic text (such as a journal article or dissertation ). It serves two main purposes:

• To help potential readers determine the relevance of your paper for their own research.
• To communicate your key findings to those who don’t have time to read the whole paper.

Abstracts are often indexed along with keywords on academic databases, so they make your work more easily findable. Since the abstract is the first thing any reader sees, it’s important that it clearly and accurately summarises the contents of your paper.

An abstract for a thesis or dissertation is usually around 150–300 words. There’s often a strict word limit, so make sure to check your university’s requirements.

The abstract is the very last thing you write. You should only write it after your research is complete, so that you can accurately summarize the entirety of your thesis or paper.

Avoid citing sources in your abstract . There are two reasons for this:

• The abstract should focus on your original research, not on the work of others.
• The abstract should be self-contained and fully understandable without reference to other sources.

There are some circumstances where you might need to mention other sources in an abstract: for example, if your research responds directly to another study or focuses on the work of a single theorist. In general, though, don’t include citations unless absolutely necessary.

The abstract appears on its own page, after the title page and acknowledgements but before the table of contents .

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How To Write an Abstract for Any Subject and Publication (With Examples)

Table of contents

Christian Rigg

An abstract is a short summary of a longer work, such as a study or research paper. The goal is to provide readers with an overview of the purpose, methodology, results, conclusion, and importance of this text.

As a writing coach and part-time academic editor and translator, I’ve read hundreds of abstracts and helped authors draft and refine dozens more. I’ve found that, when writing an abstract, the greatest difficulty lies in balancing brevity, detail, and accessibility.

Fortunately, there’s a simple formula you can use to write a solid abstract for publication, regardless of the subject. What’s more, you can leverage AI to help you write a clear, concise abstract — without losing your voice or sounding unprofessional.

Below you’ll find step-by-step instructions, best practices, examples, and a helpful checklist. 

Key Takeaways

• An abstract offers a succinct overview of the aims, results, and importance of your research.
• Check submission guidelines, write clearly and concisely, and use language to “guide” readers through your abstract. 
• The IMRaD (Introduction, Methodology, Results, and Discussion) approach is simple and effective. 
• More and more authors are using AI to do the heavy lifting. With the right prompts, AI can save you time and create a cohesive abstract.

Writing an abstract: First steps and best practices

Keep the following in mind as you write your abstract:

• If you’re submitting to a publication , check for specific guidelines regarding overall length, format, keywords, and the presence or absence of section headings (e.g. “Purpose”). Follow these guidelines exactly.
• Write concisely and clearly . If you struggle to write concisely, consider using an AI-writing assistant like Wordtune . Simply select text to receive suggestions on how to write a sentence or paragraph more concisely without losing any value.
• Make your abstract self-contained . Don’t refer to passages in your article or research. If you must include terms that your audience may not be familiar with, such as highly technical jargon or concepts borrowed from another field, offer a brief definition.
• Use connecting phrases like “for this reason,” “as a result,” and “this led us” to “guide” the reader through your abstract and help them see the connections between your research goal, methodology, results, and conclusions. ‍
• Read abstracts on similar studies . This gives you a good benchmark and can help you get started. If you’re submitting your abstract to a particular publication, it also gives you a good idea of the type of language and structure they prefer.

Get Wordtune for free > Get Wordtune for free >

How to write an abstract: The IMRaD Structure

IMRaD stands for Introduction, Methodology, Results, and Discussion (or Conclusion). 

It’s the most common way to structure a research paper and a very simple way to approach your abstract. In some cases, authors even include these section headings in their abstracts. 

Step One: Introduction

Length : About 25% of your abstract

Purpose : Provide context for your research and describe your research objectives. 

Start by introducing your topic. There are two main parts to this:

• Your research question stated simply and straightforwardly (what missing knowledge does your study aim to answer?). You can use words like “investigate,” “review,” “test,” “analyze,” “study,” and “evaluate” to make it clear how your work relates to the context.
• A brief overview of the academic, historical, social, or scientific context. This helps the reader understand the importance and relevance of your work. In many cases, starting with context before your research question makes more sense, so feel free to write in that order. 

Regarding context, consider the following: 

For example:

Psychologists and neuroscientists have long studied the role of sleep in the formation of new memories. Previous research into how sleep affects memory has often struggled because it’s difficult to measure the quality, stages, and overall impact of sleep accurately. As a result, there’s ongoing debate in the scientific community , and recent research suggests sleep may not be as important as researchers once thought. In this study, we review the evidence and offer a novel conclusion : the same mechanisms thought to mediate sleep-related memory formation also operate during waking hours, particularly quiet wakefulness.  In this example, several contextual cues are offered: it’s a long-standing topic in the literature; previous research is limited due to a specific issue , and there is active scientific debate . The section closes with the research aims: to review the evidence and offer a new conclusion. 

Step Two: Methodology

Purpose : Clearly describe what you did and highlight novelty. 

In this section, provide a clear description of your research methodology. While it’s important to be concise, make sure you’re not being vague. Mention specific frameworks and tools. 

‍ To explore the impact of social media on political engagement, we conducted a study with 200 participants, divided into two groups. The first was exposed to curated political content on social media, while the control group received a neutral feed. Our mixed-method approach combined quantitative engagement metrics analysis and qualitative interviews to assess changes in political participation.

There’s no need to provide an in-depth justification of your approach, although if it’s a novel one, it’s worth highlighting this and explaining what makes it appropriate. For example, " We chose this approach because it offers a clearer image of the structure of proteins involved in the transfer of electrons during cellular respiration ."

Finally, you can omit methodological limitations; we’ll cover these later. 

Step Three: Results

Length : About 35% of your abstract

Purpose : Provide a clear, specific account of your results. 

This section is arguably the most important (and interesting) part of your abstract.

Explain the results of your analysis in a specific and detailed fashion. This isn’t the time to be vague or bury the lead. For example:

“Our survey indicates a marked shift in sedimentary rock composition. In three locations, we observed significant erosion, and mineralogical analysis revealed a high concentration of quartz. Further analysis suggests two major events in the past 200 years, correlating with disturbances in the region.”

"Our survey of the Redstone Canyon region identified a marked shift in sedimentary rock composition from predominantly sandstone to shale, particularly evident in the lower strata. Quantitative analysis showed a 40% increase in shale content compared to previous surveys. In three distinct locations, we observed significant erosion, with up to two meters of topsoil displacement, primarily due to water runoff. Mineralogical analysis revealed an unexpectedly high concentration of quartz (up to 22%) in these eroded areas. Additionally, our seismic retrogression analysis suggests two major seismic events in the past 200 years, correlating with the observed stratification disturbances."

Incidentally, you don’t need to include all of your findings here, only those that will help the reader to understand the next section: your discussion and conclusion (i.e., what the results mean). This will help you keep the results section concise and relevant. 

Step Four: Discussion/Conclusion

Length : About 15%

Purpose : Present what new knowledge you’ve found and why it matters.

Bearing in mind your research question, give a clear account of your conclusions. What new knowledge has been gained? 

The simplest way to do this is in the present tense: “We conclude that…”

You should also briefly explain why this matters. What are the implications of your findings? Be specific and avoid making claims that aren’t directly supported by your research. 

If there are any important limitations (such as population or control group size), you can mention them now. This helps readers assess the credibility and generalizability of your findings. 

You can use these samples for inspiration.

They are divided into introduction , methodology , results , and conclusion.

The rising urbanization rate poses challenges to mental health, an issue garnering increasing attention in recent years. This study aims to analyze the impact of urban green spaces on the mental health of city dwellers. The focus is on how access to parks and natural environments within urban settings contributes to psychological well-being . For this purpose, we employed a cross-sectional survey methodology, targeting residents in three major cities with varying levels of green space availability. We used a combination of GIS mapping to determine green space distribution and structured questionnaires to assess mental health indicators among 1,000 participants . Our results show a clear correlation between access to green spaces and improved mental health outcomes. Residents with frequent access to parks reported 30% lower stress levels and a 25% reduction in symptoms related to anxiety and depression, compared to those with limited access. Additionally, our analysis revealed that green spaces in dense urban areas had a more significant impact than those in less populated districts . We conclude that urban green spaces play a crucial role in enhancing mental health. This underscores the importance of urban planning policies that prioritize green space development as a public health strategy. These findings have significant implications for city planning and public health policy, advocating for the integration of green spaces in urban development to foster mental well-being .

The phenomenon of antibiotic resistance is a growing concern in medical science. This study investigates the effectiveness of novel synthetic peptides as potential antibiotics against multi-drug resistant bacteria. The research specifically examines the impact of these peptides on the cellular integrity and replication processes of resistant bacterial strains . Our methodology involved in vitro testing of three newly synthesized peptides against a panel of bacteria known for high resistance to conventional antibiotics. The bacterial strains included methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE). We used a combination of microbiological assays and electron microscopy to evaluate the antibacterial activity and the cellular changes induced by the peptides . The results were promising, showing that two of the three peptides effectively inhibited the growth of MRSA and VRE at low concentrations. Electron microscopy revealed significant disruption of bacterial cell walls and membranes, leading to cell lysis. These peptides also demonstrated low toxicity in preliminary mammalian cell culture tests, suggesting a high therapeutic index . Our study provides promising evidence for the use of synthetic peptides in combating antibiotic-resistant bacteria. These findings open new avenues for developing effective treatments against infections caused by drug-resistant pathogens and highlight the potential of peptide-based therapies in future pharmaceutical applications .

The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) in education is a rapidly evolving area of study. This research explores the effectiveness of AI-driven personalized learning systems in enhancing student performance in high school mathematics. The study focuses on understanding how AI customization impacts learning outcomes compared to traditional teaching methods . We conducted a randomized controlled trial involving 500 high school students from five schools, divided into two groups. The experimental group used an AI-based learning platform that adapted to each student's learning pace and style, while the control group continued with standard classroom instruction. The study measured improvements in mathematical understanding and problem-solving skills over a six-month period . The results indicated a significant improvement in the AI group, with a 40% increase in test scores and a 35% rise in problem-solving abilities compared to the control group. Additionally, students using the AI system reported higher levels of engagement and satisfaction with the learning process . In conclusion, the use of AI-driven personalized learning systems shows considerable promise in enhancing educational outcomes in mathematics. This study suggests that AI personalization can be a valuable tool in modern educational strategies, potentially revolutionizing how subjects are taught and learned in schools .

What is the main objective of an abstract?

The goal of an abstract is to provide readers with a concise overview of the purpose, methodology, results, conclusion, and importance of a longer work, such as a research paper or study. 

How long should an abstract be?

Depending on the publication, an abstract should be anywhere from 150 to 250 words. 

What should an abstract include?

An abstract should include an introduction (context + research question), the methodology, the results, and a conclusion (what you found and why it matters).

IMRaD is a simple formula you can follow to write a great abstract for any topic and publication type. Simply follow the instructions above to write each section: Introduction, Methodology, Results, and Discussion/Conclusion.

Be careful to balance detail with brevity, as abstracts are meant to be a short overview of your study. If you struggle with writing concisely and clearly, consider using a writing aid like Wordtune to handle some of the heavy lifting. 

Want to learn more key writing tips? Check out these articles:

• How to Write Concisely and Effectively (+Examples)
• Transition Word Examples and How to Use Them Effectively
• How to Write a Research Paper (+Free AI Research Paper Writer)

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How to write an abstract

What is an abstract?

General format of an abstract, the content of an abstract, abstract example, abstract style guides, frequently asked questions about writing an abstract, related articles.

An abstract is a summary of the main contents of a paper.

The abstract is the first glimpse that readers get of the content of a research paper. It can influence the popularity of a paper, as a well-written one will attract readers, and a poorly-written one will drive them away.

➡️ Different types of papers may require distinct abstract styles. Visit our guide on the different types of research papers to learn more.

Tip: Always wait until you’ve written your entire paper before you write the abstract.

Before you actually start writing an abstract, make sure to follow these steps:

• Read other papers : find papers with similar topics, or similar methodologies, simply to have an idea of how others have written their abstracts. Notice which points they decided to include, and how in depth they described them.
• Double check the journal requirements : always make sure to review the journal guidelines to format your paper accordingly. Usually, they also specify abstract's formats.
• Write the abstract after you finish writing the paper : you can only write an abstract once you finish writing the whole paper. This way you can include all important aspects, such as scope, methodology, and conclusion.

➡️ Read more about  what is a research methodology?

The general format of an abstract includes the following features:

• Between 150-300 words .
• An independent page , after the title page and before the table of contents.
• Concise summary including the aim of the research, methodology , and conclusion .
• Keywords describing the content.

As mentioned before, an abstract is a text that summarizes the main points of a research. Here is a break down of each element that should be included in an abstract:

• Purpose : every abstract should start by describing the main purpose or aim of the research.
• Methods : as a second point, the methodology carried out should be explained.
• Results : then, a concise summary of the results should be included.
• Conclusion : finally, a short outline of the general outcome of the research should be given.
• Keywords : along with the abstract, specific words and phrases related to the topics discussed in the research should be added. These words are usually around five, but the number can vary depending on the journal's guidelines.

This abstract, taken from ScienceDirect , illustrates the ideal structure of an abstract. It has 155 words, it's concise, and it clearly shows the division of elements necessary to write a successful abstract.

This paper explores the implicit assumption in the growing body of literature that social media usage is fundamentally different in business-to-business (B2B) companies than in the extant business-to-consumer (B2C) literature. Sashi's (2012) customer engagement cycle is utilized to compare organizational practices in relation to social media marketing in B2B, B2C, Mixed B2B/B2C and B2B2C business models. Utilizing 449 responses to an exploratory panel based survey instrument, we clearly identify differences in social media usage and its perceived importance as a communications channel. In particular we identify distinct differences in the relationship between social media importance and the perceived effectiveness of social media marketing across business models. Our results indicate that B2B social media usage is distinct from B2C, Mixed and B2B2C business model approaches. Specifically B2B organizational members perceive social media to have a lower overall effectiveness as a channel and identify it as less important for relationship oriented usage than other business models.

The exact format of an abstract depends on the citation style you implement. Whether it’s a well-known style (like APA, IEEE, etc.) or a journal's style, each format has its own guidelines, so make sure you know which style you are using before writing your abstract.

APA is one of the most commonly used styles to format an abstract. Therefore, we created a guide with exact instructions on how to write an abstract in APA style, and a template to download:

📕 APA abstract page: format and template

Additionally, you will find below an IEEE and ASA abstract guide by Purdue Online Writing Lab :

📗 IEEE General Format - Abstract

📘 ASA Manuscript Formatting - Abstract

No. You should always write an abstract once you finish writing the whole paper. This way you can include all important aspects of the paper, such as scope, methodology, and conclusion.

The length of an abstract depends on the formatting style of the paper. For example, APA style calls for 150 to 250 words. Generally, you need between 150-300 words.

No. An abstract has an independent section after the title page and before the table of contents, and should not be included in the table of contents.

Take a look at APA abstract page: format and template for exact details on how to format an abstract in APA style.

You can access any paper through Google Scholar or any other search engine; pick a paper and read the abstract. Abstracts are always freely available to read.

How to Write an Abstract APA Format

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

An APA abstract is a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of an article, research paper, dissertation, or report.

It is written in accordance with the guidelines of the American Psychological Association (APA), which is a widely used format in social and behavioral sciences. 

An APA abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph of between 150–250 words, the major aspects of a research paper or dissertation in a prescribed sequence that includes:

• The rationale: the overall purpose of the study, providing a clear context for the research undertaken.
• Information regarding the method and participants: including materials/instruments, design, procedure, and data analysis.
• Main findings or trends: effectively highlighting the key outcomes of the hypotheses.
• Interpretations and conclusion(s): solidify the implications of the research.
• Keywords related to the study: assist the paper’s discoverability in academic databases.

The abstract should stand alone, be “self-contained,” and make sense to the reader in isolation from the main article.

The purpose of the abstract is to give the reader a quick overview of the essential information before reading the entire article. The abstract is placed on its own page, directly after the title page and before the main body of the paper.

Although the abstract will appear as the very first part of your paper, it’s good practice to write your abstract after you’ve drafted your full paper, so that you know what you’re summarizing.

Note : This page reflects the latest version of the APA Publication Manual (i.e., APA 7), released in October 2019.

Structure of the Abstract

[NOTE: DO NOT separate the components of the abstract – it should be written as a single paragraph. This section is separated to illustrate the abstract’s structure.]

1) The Rationale

One or two sentences describing the overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s) you investigated. You are basically justifying why this study was conducted.

• What is the importance of the research?
• Why would a reader be interested in the larger work?
• For example, are you filling a gap in previous research or applying new methods to take a fresh look at existing ideas or data?
• Women who are diagnosed with breast cancer can experience an array of psychosocial difficulties; however, social support, particularly from a spouse, has been shown to have a protective function during this time. This study examined the ways in which a woman’s daily mood, pain, and fatigue, and her spouse’s marital satisfaction predict the woman’s report of partner support in the context of breast cancer.
• The current nursing shortage, high hospital nurse job dissatisfaction, and reports of uneven quality of hospital care are not uniquely American phenomena.
• Students with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) are more likely to exhibit behavioral difficulties than their typically developing peers. The aim of this study was to identify specific risk factors that influence variability in behavior difficulties among individuals with SEND.

2) The Method

Information regarding the participants (number, and population). One or two sentences outlining the method, explaining what was done and how. The method is described in the present tense.

• Pretest data from a larger intervention study and multilevel modeling were used to examine the effects of women’s daily mood, pain, and fatigue and average levels of mood, pain, and fatigue on women’s report of social support received from her partner, as well as how the effects of mood interacted with partners’ marital satisfaction.
• This paper presents reports from 43,000 nurses from more than 700 hospitals in the United States, Canada, England, Scotland, and Germany in 1998–1999.
• The study sample comprised 4,228 students with SEND, aged 5–15, drawn from 305 primary and secondary schools across England. Explanatory variables were measured at the individual and school levels at baseline, along with a teacher-reported measure of behavior difficulties (assessed at baseline and the 18-month follow-up).

3) The Results

One or two sentences indicating the main findings or trends found as a result of your analysis. The results are described in the present or past tense.

• Results show that on days in which women reported higher levels of negative or positive mood, as well as on days they reported more pain and fatigue, they reported receiving more support. Women who, on average, reported higher levels of positive mood tended to report receiving more support than those who, on average, reported lower positive mood. However, average levels of negative mood were not associated with support. Higher average levels of fatigue but not pain were associated with higher support. Finally, women whose husbands reported higher levels of marital satisfaction reported receiving more partner support, but husbands’ marital satisfaction did not moderate the effect of women’s mood on support.
• Nurses in countries with distinctly different healthcare systems report similar shortcomings in their work environments and the quality of hospital care. While the competence of and relation between nurses and physicians appear satisfactory, core problems in work design and workforce management threaten the provision of care.
• Hierarchical linear modeling of data revealed that differences between schools accounted for between 13% (secondary) and 15.4% (primary) of the total variance in the development of students’ behavior difficulties, with the remainder attributable to individual differences. Statistically significant risk markers for these problems across both phases of education were being male, eligibility for free school meals, being identified as a bully, and lower academic achievement. Additional risk markers specific to each phase of education at the individual and school levels are also acknowledged.

4) The Conclusion / Implications

A brief summary of your conclusions and implications of the results, described in the present tense. Explain the results and why the study is important to the reader.

• For example, what changes should be implemented as a result of the findings of the work?
• How does this work add to the body of knowledge on the topic?

Implications of these findings are discussed relative to assisting couples during this difficult time in their lives.

• Resolving these issues, which are amenable to managerial intervention, is essential to preserving patient safety and care of consistently high quality.
• Behavior difficulties are affected by risks across multiple ecological levels. Addressing any one of these potential influences is therefore likely to contribute to the reduction in the problems displayed.

The above examples of abstracts are from the following papers:

Aiken, L. H., Clarke, S. P., Sloane, D. M., Sochalski, J. A., Busse, R., Clarke, H., … & Shamian, J. (2001). Nurses’ reports on hospital care in five countries . Health affairs, 20(3) , 43-53.

Boeding, S. E., Pukay-Martin, N. D., Baucom, D. H., Porter, L. S., Kirby, J. S., Gremore, T. M., & Keefe, F. J. (2014). Couples and breast cancer: Women’s mood and partners’ marital satisfaction predicting support perception . Journal of Family Psychology, 28(5) , 675.

Oldfield, J., Humphrey, N., & Hebron, J. (2017). Risk factors in the development of behavior difficulties among students with special educational needs and disabilities: A multilevel analysis . British journal of educational psychology, 87(2) , 146-169.

5) Keywords

APA style suggests including a list of keywords at the end of the abstract. This is particularly common in academic articles and helps other researchers find your work in databases.

Keywords in an abstract should be selected to help other researchers find your work when searching an online database. These keywords should effectively represent the main topics of your study. Here are some tips for choosing keywords:

Core Concepts: Identify the most important ideas or concepts in your paper. These often include your main research topic, the methods you’ve used, or the theories you’re discussing.

Specificity: Your keywords should be specific to your research. For example, suppose your paper is about the effects of climate change on bird migration patterns in a specific region. In that case, your keywords might include “climate change,” “bird migration,” and the region’s name.

Consistency with Paper: Make sure your keywords are consistent with the terms you’ve used in your paper. For example, if you use the term “adolescent” rather than “teen” in your paper, choose “adolescent” as your keyword, not “teen.”

Jargon and Acronyms: Avoid using too much-specialized jargon or acronyms in your keywords, as these might not be understood or used by all researchers in your field.

Synonyms: Consider including synonyms of your keywords to capture as many relevant searches as possible. For example, if your paper discusses “post-traumatic stress disorder,” you might include “PTSD” as a keyword.

Remember, keywords are a tool for others to find your work, so think about what terms other researchers might use when searching for papers on your topic.

The Abstract SHOULD NOT contain:

Lengthy background or contextual information: The abstract should focus on your research and findings, not general topic background.

Undefined jargon, abbreviations,  or acronyms: The abstract should be accessible to a wide audience, so avoid highly specialized terms without defining them.

Citations: Abstracts typically do not include citations, as they summarize original research.

Incomplete sentences or bulleted lists: The abstract should be a single, coherent paragraph written in complete sentences.

New information not covered in the paper: The abstract should only summarize the paper’s content.

Subjective comments or value judgments: Stick to objective descriptions of your research.

Excessive details on methods or procedures: Keep descriptions of methods brief and focused on main steps.

Speculative or inconclusive statements: The abstract should state the research’s clear findings, not hypotheses or possible interpretations.

• Any illustration, figure, table, or references to them . All visual aids, data, or extensive details should be included in the main body of your paper, not in the abstract. 
• Elliptical or incomplete sentences should be avoided in an abstract . The use of ellipses (…), which could indicate incomplete thoughts or omitted text, is not appropriate in an abstract.

APA Style for Abstracts

An APA abstract must be formatted as follows:

Include the running head aligned to the left at the top of the page (professional papers only) and page number. Note, student papers do not require a running head. On the first line, center the heading “Abstract” and bold (do not underlined or italicize). Do not indent the single abstract paragraph (which begins one line below the section title). Double-space the text. Use Times New Roman font in 12 pt. Set one-inch (or 2.54 cm) margins. If you include a “keywords” section at the end of the abstract, indent the first line and italicize the word “Keywords” while leaving the keywords themselves without any formatting.

Example APA Abstract Page

Download this example as a PDF

Further Information

• APA 7th Edition Abstract and Keywords Guide
• Example APA Abstract
• How to Write a Good Abstract for a Scientific Paper or Conference Presentation
• How to Write a Lab Report
• Writing an APA paper

How long should an APA abstract be?

An APA abstract should typically be between 150 to 250 words long. However, the exact length may vary depending on specific publication or assignment guidelines. It is crucial that it succinctly summarizes the essential elements of the work, including purpose, methods, findings, and conclusions.

Where does the abstract go in an APA paper?

In an APA formatted paper, the abstract is placed on its own page, directly after the title page and before the main body of the paper. It’s typically the second page of the document. It starts with the word “Abstract” (centered and not in bold) at the top of the page, followed by the text of the abstract itself.

What are the 4 C’s of abstract writing?

The 4 C’s of abstract writing are an approach to help you create a well-structured and informative abstract. They are:

Conciseness: An abstract should briefly summarize the key points of your study. Stick to the word limit (typically between 150-250 words for an APA abstract) and avoid unnecessary details.

Clarity: Your abstract should be easy to understand. Avoid jargon and complex sentences. Clearly explain the purpose, methods, results, and conclusions of your study.

Completeness: Even though it’s brief, the abstract should provide a complete overview of your study, including the purpose, methods, key findings, and your interpretation of the results.

Cohesion: The abstract should flow logically from one point to the next, maintaining a coherent narrative about your study. It’s not just a list of disjointed elements; it’s a brief story of your research from start to finish.

What is the abstract of a psychology paper?

An abstract in a psychology paper serves as a snapshot of the paper, allowing readers to quickly understand the purpose, methodology, results, and implications of the research without reading the entire paper. It is generally between 150-250 words long.

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Home / Guides / Citation Guides / APA Format / How to write an APA abstract

How to write an APA abstract

An APA abstract is a short summary designed to help a reader decide if they are going to read the entire paper. An effective abstract will communicate your hypothesis, method, and results while also creating credibility for yourself as the author. An abstract will also make it easier for new readers to find your work.

In this guide, you will learn how to format an APA abstract. It begins with an overview of the key aspects included with an abstract and ends with a set of real APA abstract examples that you can look at.

The information in this guide comes straight from the source: The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 7 th edition. Most of the relevant information comes from Section 2.9.

Here’s a run-through of everything this page includes:

What is an APA abstract page?

How to format an apa abstract, paragraph format vs. structured format, adding a keywords section after your apa abstract, about apa formatting and the apa style guide.

While the abstract page plays an important role in getting the reader interested, it is not a sales pitch. It’s about reporting, not commenting. That means that it should accurately reflect each key aspect of your paper.  In other words, it is a concise, comprehensive summary of your paper.

This is where you describe the problem you were exploring, the methods you used to explore it, and the results or conclusions of your exploration. In some cases, you might also be required to state the significance of your conclusions.

Here are some of the key aspects of an APA abstract that might be requested by the publication:

• Basic problem : Why did this work need to be done?
• Clearly-stated hypotheses: What was your hypothesis?
• Methods of investigation: How did you do your research? How did you design your experiment or argument? For scientific papers, include basic sample information.
• Results: What was the result of your study?
• Implications: What is the significance of your findings?

Remember, the specific sections or labels in your abstract might vary based on who you are submitting to.

Qualities of a good abstract

In addition to the formatting requirements, the Publication Manual also provides some guidance on what other qualities make for a good abstract.

Here are the qualities of a good abstract as defined by APA. You can find more information on how to formulate a great abstract in chapter 3.

• Accurate: The most important thing is that your abstract accurately reflects the contents and purpose of your paper. The general rule of thumb for accuracy is, if it doesn’t appear in your paper, it should not appear in the abstract.
• Non-evaluative: The APA instructs us to “Report rather than evaluate” (p.73). It is inappropriate to add any opinions or comments to the abstract.
• Coherent and readable: Your abstract needs to be as clear as possible. Use concise, deliberate language. It helps to use verbs instead of nouns when possible (e.g., “investigated” rather than “an investigation of”).
• Concise: Make sure every sentence is as informative as possible. There should be no “extra” words in an abstract; it’s all about getting the point across as efficiently as possible. Because abstracts are often used for academic search engines, it is good practice to use specific terms that you think people would use to find your paper.

In large part, the abstract page is formatted just like any APA paper. That means that it should be 12pt font and double-spaced the whole way through.

A properly formatted abstract will also be:

• No more than 250 words in length.
• Placed on its own page, immediately following the APA title page .
• Labeled with a bold, center-justified “Abstract” at the top

It is important to note that some publications will have their own instructions on how to format the abstract. In addition, some publications require a statement of significance in addition to the abstract.

If you are submitting your paper to a journal, be sure to check the publication’s author instructions.

The abstract page of an APA paper can be presented in two ways. As the author, you have the option of presenting your abstract in either paragraph format or structured format .

Paragraph format is more common with student papers. This is a single paragraph with no indentation on the first line. The objective, method, results, and conclusions are presented one after another in a simple, narrative manner.

Structured format is similar in formatting with one key difference. This format calls for the insertion of specific labels to identify the different parts of the abstract. In other words, “Objective,” “Method,” “Results,” and “Conclusions” are presented as labels before their corresponding sentences in the abstract.

It’s important to remember that some publications have different labeling requirements. If you’re submitting your paper to a journal, be sure to check the formatting standards.

APA abstract example: Paragraph format

Let’s move on to a specific example of a properly formatted APA abstract written in paragraph format.

The following abstract is from the paper “Movement, wildness, and animal aesthetics” by Tom Greaves. Note how the first line is not indented like a normal paragraph.

The key role that animals play in our aesthetic appreciation of the natural world has only gradually been highlighted in discussions in environmental aesthetics. In this article I make use of the phenomenological notion of ‘perceptual sense’ as developed by Merleau-Ponty to argue that open-ended expressive-responsive movement is the primary aesthetic ground for our appreciation of animals. It is through their movement that the array of qualities we admire in animals are manifest qua animal qualities. Against functionalist and formalist accounts, I defend and develop an account of expressive-responsive movement as the primary perceptual sense of animals. I go on to suggest that the primacy of movement in the aesthetic appreciation of animals is also the primary sense of animal ‘wildness’, and that a key part of the rewilding paradigm should be the development of such appreciation.

In the paragraph above, Greaves uses his first sentence to explain the basic problem, and the next two sentences to describe the method. The fourth sentence presents the results, and the fifth sentence wraps things up with a conclusion.

It’s only five sentences, and it tells the reader everything they need to know about the contents of the paper.

APA abstract example: Structured format

Next up is an example of a properly formatted APA abstract written in structured format. This example uses the same abstract as above, with the addition of identifying labels.

Structured abstracts are only necessary when specifically requested by the class, institution, or journal you are submitting to. For all APA journals, these labels are bold, italicized, and capitalized.

Objective. The key role that animals play in our aesthetic appreciation of the natural world has only gradually been highlighted in discussions in environmental aesthetics. Method. In this article I make use of the phenomenological notion of ‘perceptual sense’ as developed by Merleau-Ponty to argue that open-ended expressive-responsive movement is the primary aesthetic ground for our appreciation of animals. It is through their movement that the array of qualities we admire in animals are manifest qua animal qualities. Results. Against functionalist and formalist accounts, I defend and develop an account of expressive-responsive movement as the primary perceptual sense of animals. Conclusions. I go on to suggest that the primacy of movement in the aesthetic appreciation of animals is also the primary sense of animal ‘wildness’, and that a key part of the rewilding paradigm should be the development of such appreciation.

A paper’s keywords section is intended to help people find your work. These are the acronyms, phrases, or words that describe the most important elements of your paper. Any papers submitted to an APA journal should include three to five keywords.

The keywords section is generally only required for professional papers. However, some professors and universities specifically request that it be included in student papers.

Formatting the keywords section

The keywords are presented on the same page as the abstract, one line below the end of the abstract paragraph. It begins with the label “Keywords:”, and it is italicized and indented 0.5in from the margin.

Next comes a list of the keywords separated by commas. The keywords should be lowercase, unless the keyword is a proper noun. There is no punctuation at the end of a keyword list.

APA abstract with keywords example

Take another look at the abstract example that was provided above. Here is what a set of keywords might look like for that paper, pulling between 3-5 specific terms from the abstract itself.

The keywords are placed one line below the abstract without any additional spaces.

Keywords: animals, animal aesthetics, wildness, rewilding

The information in this guide came from the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7 th ed.). Chapter 2 of this book lays out the basic formatting elements for APA 7, including how to write an APA abstract.

You can also consult chapter 3.3 for more in-depth recommendations on how to formulate your abstract based on what type of paper you are writing.

Published October 27, 2020.

APA Formatting Guide

APA Formatting

• Annotated Bibliography
• Block Quotes
• et al Usage
• In-text Citations
• Multiple Authors
• Paraphrasing
• Page Numbers
• Parenthetical Citations
• Reference Page
• Sample Paper
• APA 7 Updates
• View APA Guide

Citation Examples

• Book Chapter
• Journal Article
• Magazine Article
• Newspaper Article
• Website (no author)
• View all APA Examples

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Writing an abstract - a six point checklist (with samples)

Posted in: abstract , dissertations

The abstract is a vital part of any research paper. It is the shop front for your work, and the first stop for your reader. It should provide a clear and succinct summary of your study, and encourage your readers to read more. An effective abstract, therefore should answer the following questions:

• Why did you do this study or project?
• What did you do and how?
• What did you find?
• What do your findings mean?

So here's our run down of the key elements of a well-written abstract.

• Size - A succinct and well written abstract should be between approximately 100- 250 words.
• Background - An effective abstract usually includes some scene-setting information which might include what is already known about the subject, related to the paper in question (a few short sentences).
• Purpose  - The abstract should also set out the purpose of your research, in other words, what is not known about the subject and hence what the study intended to examine (or what the paper seeks to present).
• Methods - The methods section should contain enough information to enable the reader to understand what was done, and how. It should include brief details of the research design, sample size, duration of study, and so on.
• Results - The results section is the most important part of the abstract. This is because readers who skim an abstract do so to learn about the findings of the study. The results section should therefore contain as much detail about the findings as the journal word count permits.
• Conclusion - This section should contain the most important take-home message of the study, expressed in a few precisely worded sentences. Usually, the finding highlighted here relates to the primary outcomes of the study. However, other important or unexpected findings should also be mentioned. It is also customary, but not essential, to express an opinion about the theoretical or practical implications of the findings, or the importance of their findings for the field. Thus, the conclusions may contain three elements:
• The primary take-home message.
• Any additional findings of importance.
• Implications for future studies.

Example Abstract 2: Engineering Development and validation of a three-dimensional finite element model of the pelvic bone.

Abstract from: Dalstra, M., Huiskes, R. and Van Erning, L., 1995. Development and validation of a three-dimensional finite element model of the pelvic bone. Journal of biomechanical engineering, 117(3), pp.272-278.

And finally...  A word on abstract types and styles

Abstract types can differ according to subject discipline. You need to determine therefore which type of abstract you should include with your paper. Here are two of the most common types with examples.

Informative Abstract

The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the researcher presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the paper. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract [purpose, methods, scope] but it also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is usually no more than 300 words in length.

Descriptive Abstract A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgements about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract only describes the work being summarised. Some researchers consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short, 100 words or less.

Adapted from Andrade C. How to write a good abstract for a scientific paper or conference presentation. Indian J Psychiatry. 2011 Apr;53(2):172-5. doi: 10.4103/0019-5545.82558. PMID: 21772657; PMCID: PMC3136027 .

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The Dissertation Abstract: 101

How to write a clear & concise abstract (with examples).

By:   Madeline Fink (MSc) Reviewed By: Derek Jansen (MBA)   | June 2020

So, you’ve (finally) finished your thesis or dissertation or thesis. Now it’s time to write up your abstract (sometimes also called the executive summary). If you’re here, chances are you’re not quite sure what you need to cover in this section, or how to go about writing it. Fear not – we’ll explain it all in plain language , step by step , with clear examples .

Overview: The Dissertation/Thesis Abstract

• What exactly is a dissertation (or thesis) abstract
• What’s the purpose and function of the abstract
• Why is the abstract so important
• How to write a high-quality dissertation abstract
• Example/sample of a quality abstract
• Quick tips to write a high-quality dissertation abstract

What is an abstract?

Simply put, the abstract in a dissertation or thesis is a short (but well structured) summary that outlines the most important points of your research (i.e. the key takeaways). The abstract is usually 1 paragraph or about 300-500 words long (about one page), but but this can vary between universities.

A quick note regarding terminology – strictly speaking, an abstract and an executive summary are two different things when it comes to academic publications. Typically, an abstract only states what the research will be about, but doesn’t explore the findings – whereas an executive summary covers both . However, in the context of a dissertation or thesis, the abstract usually covers both, providing a summary of the full project.

In terms of content, a good dissertation abstract usually covers the following points:

• The purpose of the research (what’s it about and why’s that important)
• The methodology (how you carried out the research)
• The key research findings (what answers you found)
• The implications of these findings (what these answers mean)

We’ll explain each of these in more detail a little later in this post. Buckle up.

What’s the purpose of the abstract?

A dissertation abstract has two main functions:

The first purpose is to  inform potential readers  of the main idea of your research without them having to read your entire piece of work. Specifically, it needs to communicate what your research is about (what were you trying to find out) and what your findings were . When readers are deciding whether to read your dissertation or thesis, the abstract is the first part they’ll consider. 

The second purpose of the abstract is to  inform search engines and dissertation databases  as they index your dissertation or thesis. The keywords and phrases in your abstract (as well as your keyword list) will often be used by these search engines to categorize your work and make it accessible to users. 

Simply put, your abstract is your shopfront display window – it’s what passers-by (both human and digital) will look at before deciding to step inside. 

Why’s it so important?

The short answer – because most people don’t have time to read your full dissertation or thesis! Time is money, after all…

If you think back to when you undertook your literature review , you’ll quickly realise just how important abstracts are! Researchers reviewing the literature on any given topic face a mountain of reading, so they need to optimise their approach. A good dissertation abstract gives the reader a “TLDR” version of your work – it helps them decide whether to continue to read it in its entirety. So, your abstract, as your shopfront display window, needs to “sell” your research to time-poor readers.

You might be thinking, “but I don’t plan to publish my dissertation”. Even so, you still need to provide an impactful abstract for your markers. Your ability to concisely summarise your work is one of the things they’re assessing, so it’s vital to invest time and effort into crafting an enticing shop window.  

A good abstract also has an added purpose for grad students . As a freshly minted graduate, your dissertation or thesis is often your most significant professional accomplishment and highlights where your unique expertise lies. Potential employers who want to know about this expertise are likely to only read the abstract (as opposed to reading your entire document) – so it needs to be good!

Think about it this way – if your thesis or dissertation were a book, then the abstract would be the blurb on the back cover. For better or worse, readers will absolutely judge your book by its cover .

How to write your abstract

As we touched on earlier, your abstract should cover four important aspects of your research: the purpose , methodology , findings , and implications . Therefore, the structure of your dissertation or thesis abstract needs to reflect these four essentials, in the same order.  Let’s take a closer look at each of them, step by step:

Step 1: Describe the purpose and value of your research

Here you need to concisely explain the purpose and value of your research. In other words, you need to explain what your research set out to discover and why that’s important. When stating the purpose of research, you need to clearly discuss the following:

• What were your research aims and research questions ?
• Why were these aims and questions important?

It’s essential to make this section extremely clear, concise and convincing . As the opening section, this is where you’ll “hook” your reader (marker) in and get them interested in your project. If you don’t put in the effort here, you’ll likely lose their interest.

Step 2: Briefly outline your study’s methodology

In this part of your abstract, you need to very briefly explain how you went about answering your research questions . In other words, what research design and methodology you adopted in your research. Some important questions to address here include:

• Did you take a qualitative or quantitative approach ?
• Who/what did your sample consist of?
• How did you collect your data?
• How did you analyse your data?

Simply put, this section needs to address the “ how ” of your research. It doesn’t need to be lengthy (this is just a summary, after all), but it should clearly address the four questions above.

Need a helping hand?

Step 3: Present your key findings

Next, you need to briefly highlight the key findings . Your research likely produced a wealth of data and findings, so there may be a temptation to ramble here. However, this section is just about the key findings – in other words, the answers to the original questions that you set out to address.

Again, brevity and clarity are important here. You need to concisely present the most important findings for your reader.

Step 4: Describe the implications of your research

Have you ever found yourself reading through a large report, struggling to figure out what all the findings mean in terms of the bigger picture? Well, that’s the purpose of the implications section – to highlight the “so what?” of your research. 

In this part of your abstract, you should address the following questions:

• What is the impact of your research findings on the industry /field investigated? In other words, what’s the impact on the “real world”. 
• What is the impact of your findings on the existing body of knowledge ? For example, do they support the existing research?
• What might your findings mean for future research conducted on your topic?

If you include these four essential ingredients in your dissertation abstract, you’ll be on headed in a good direction.

Example: Dissertation/thesis abstract

Here is an example of an abstract from a master’s thesis, with the purpose , methods , findings , and implications colour coded.

The U.S. citizenship application process is a legal and symbolic journey shaped by many cultural processes. This research project aims to bring to light the experiences of immigrants and citizenship applicants living in Dallas, Texas, to promote a better understanding of Dallas’ increasingly diverse population. Additionally, the purpose of this project is to provide insights to a specific client, the office of Dallas Welcoming Communities and Immigrant Affairs, about Dallas’ lawful permanent residents who are eligible for citizenship and their reasons for pursuing citizenship status . The data for this project was collected through observation at various citizenship workshops and community events, as well as through semi-structured interviews with 14 U.S. citizenship applicants . Reasons for applying for U.S. citizenship discussed in this project include a desire for membership in U.S. society, access to better educational and economic opportunities, improved ease of travel and the desire to vote. Barriers to the citizenship process discussed in this project include the amount of time one must dedicate to the application, lack of clear knowledge about the process and the financial cost of the application. Other themes include the effects of capital on applicant’s experience with the citizenship process, symbolic meanings of citizenship, transnationalism and ideas of deserving and undeserving surrounding the issues of residency and U.S. citizenship. These findings indicate the need for educational resources and mentorship for Dallas-area residents applying for U.S. citizenship, as well as a need for local government programs that foster a sense of community among citizenship applicants and their neighbours.

Practical tips for writing your abstract

When crafting the abstract for your dissertation or thesis, the most powerful technique you can use is to try and put yourself in the shoes of a potential reader. Assume the reader is not an expert in the field, but is interested in the research area. In other words, write for the intelligent layman, not for the seasoned topic expert. 

Start by trying to answer the question “why should I read this dissertation?”

Remember the WWHS.

Make sure you include the  what , why ,  how , and  so what  of your research in your abstract:

• What you studied (who and where are included in this part)
• Why the topic was important
• How you designed your study (i.e. your research methodology)
• So what were the big findings and implications of your research

Keep it simple.

Use terminology appropriate to your field of study, but don’t overload your abstract with big words and jargon that cloud the meaning and make your writing difficult to digest. A good abstract should appeal to all levels of potential readers and should be a (relatively) easy read. Remember, you need to write for the intelligent layman.

Be specific.

When writing your abstract, clearly outline your most important findings and insights and don’t worry about “giving away” too much about your research – there’s no need to withhold information. This is the one way your abstract is not like a blurb on the back of a book – the reader should be able to clearly understand the key takeaways of your thesis or dissertation after reading the abstract. Of course, if they then want more detail, they need to step into the restaurant and try out the menu.

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

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19 Comments

This was so very useful, thank you Caroline.

Much appreciated.

This information on Abstract for writing a Dissertation was very helpful to me!

This was so useful. Thank you very much.

This was really useful in writing the abstract for my dissertation. Thank you Caroline.

Very clear and helpful information. Thanks so much!

Fabulous information – succinct, simple information which made my life easier after the most stressful and rewarding 21 months of completing this Masters Degree.

Very clear, specific and to the point guidance. Thanks a lot. Keep helping people 🙂

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Really, I found the explanation given of great help. The way the information is presented is easy to follow and capture.

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Thanks for this! Very concise and helpful for my ADHD brain.

I am so grateful for the tips. I am very optimistic in coming up with a winning abstract for my dessertation, thanks to you.

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How to Write an APA Abstract

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

Verywell / Nusha Ashjaee 

• Writing Your Abstract
• How to Use Keywords

An APA abstract is a concise but comprehensive summary of a scientific paper. It is typically a paragraph long, or about 150 to 250 words. The goal of the abstract is to provide the reader with a brief and accurate idea of what a paper is about.

The APA abstract should appear on a separate page immediately after the title page and before the main content of your paper. While professional papers that appear in scientific journals and other publications require an APA abstract, they may not be required for student papers. However, you should always check with your instructor for specific requirements.

What Is APA Format?

APA format is the official style of the American Psychological Association. It is used in writing for psychology and other social sciences. These style guidelines specify different aspects of a document's presentation and layout, including how pages are structured, how references are organized, and how sources are cited.

This article explains how to create an abstract in APA format for your psychology papers or other types of scientific writing. It covers the basic rules you should follow as well as specific guidelines for writing abstracts for experimental reports, literature reviews, and other articles.

What Is an Abstract in APA Format?

In addition to providing guidance for the general style and organization of a paper, APA format also stipulates using an abstract designed to briefly summarize the key details in a paper.

While it is sometimes overlooked or only an afterthought, an abstract is an integral part of any academic or professional paper. The abstract is a critical component of an APA-formatted paper. This brief overview summarizes what your paper contains. It should succinctly and accurately represent what your paper is about and what the reader can expect to find.

Following a few simple guidelines, you can create an abstract following the format. Done well, an abstract generates interest in your work and helps readers learn if the paper will interest them.

APA Format Abstract Basics

The abstract is the second page of a lab report or APA-format paper and should immediately follow the title page . Think of an abstract as a highly condensed summary of your entire paper.

The purpose of your abstract is to provide a brief yet thorough overview of your paper. It should function much like your title page—it should allow the person reading it to quickly determine what your paper is all about. Your abstract is the first thing that most people will read, and it is usually what informs their decision to read the rest of your paper.

The abstract is the single most important paragraph in your entire paper, according to the APA Publication Manual. A good abstract lets the reader know that your paper is worth reading.

According to the official guidelines of the American Psychological Association, an abstract should be brief but packed with information. Each sentence must be written with maximum impact in mind. To keep your abstract short, focus on including just four or five of the essential points, concepts, or findings.

An abstract must also be objective and accurate. The abstract's purpose is to report rather than provide commentary. It should accurately reflect what your paper is about. Only include information that is also included in the body of your paper.

Key Elements of an APA Abstract

Your abstract page should include:

• A running head , which is a shortened version of your title that appears in all caps at the top left of each page of your paper
• A section label , which should be the word "Abstract" centered and bolded at the top of the page
• A page number , which should be the second page of your paper (the title page should be page 1)
• A double-spaced paragraph of about 150 to 250 words
• An indented list of keywords related to your paper's content. Include the label "Keywords:" in italics and list three to five keywords that are separated by commas

How to Write an Abstract in APA Format

Before you write your abstract, you first need to write your paper in its entirety. In order to write a good abstract, you need to have a finished draft of your paper so you can summarize it accurately.

While the abstract will be at the beginning of your paper, it should be the last section you write.

Once you have completed the final draft of your psychology paper , use it as a guide for writing your abstract.

• Begin your abstract on a new page . Place your running head and page number 2 in the top right-hand corner. Center the word "Abstract" at the top of the page.
• Know your target word count . An abstract should be between 150 and 250 words. Exact word counts vary from journal to journal . If you are writing your paper for a psychology course, your professor may have specific word requirements, so be sure to ask. The abstract should be written as only one paragraph with no indentation.
• Structure the abstract in the same order as your paper . Begin with a brief summary of the introduction , and then continue on with a summary of the method , results , and discussion sections of your paper.
• Look at other abstracts in professional journals for examples of how to summarize your paper . Notice the main points that the authors chose to mention in the abstract. Use these examples as a guide when choosing the main ideas in your own paper.
• Write a rough draft of your abstract . Use the format required for your type of paper (see next sections). While you should aim for brevity, be careful not to make your summary too short. Try to write one to two sentences summarizing each section of your paper. Once you have a rough draft, you can edit for length and clarity.
• Ask a friend to read over the abstract . Sometimes, having someone look at your abstract with fresh eyes can provide perspective and help you spot possible typos and other errors.

The abstract is vital to your paper, so it should not be overlooked or treated as an afterthought. Spend time writing this section carefully to ensure maximum readability and clarity.

It is important to remember that while the abstract is the last thing you write, it is often the most read part of your paper.

Experimental Report Abstracts

The format of your abstract also depends on the type of paper you are writing. For example, an abstract summarizing an experimental paper will differ from that of a meta-analysis or case study . For an experimental report, your abstract should:

• Identify the problem . In many cases, you should begin by stating the question you sought to investigate and your hypothesis .
• Describe the participants in the study . State how many participants took part and how they were selected. For example: "In this study, 215 undergraduate student participants were randomly assigned to [the experimental condition] or [the control condition]."
• Describe the study method . For example, identify whether you used a within-subjects, between-subjects, or mixed design.
• Give the basic findings . This is essentially a brief preview of the results of your paper. 
• Provide any conclusions or implications of the study . What might your results indicate, and what directions does it point to for future research?

Literature Review Abstracts

If your paper is a meta-analysis or literature review, your abstract should:

• Describe the problem of interest . In other words, what is it that you set out to investigate in your analysis or review?
• Explain the criteria used to select the studies included in the paper . There may be many different studies devoted to your topic. Your analysis or review probably only looks at a portion of these studies. For what reason did you select these specific studies to include in your research?
• Identify the participants in the studies . Inform the reader about who the participants were in the studies. Were they college students? Older adults? How were they selected and assigned?
• Provide the main results . Again, this is essentially a quick peek at what readers will find when they read your results section. Don't try to include everything. Just provide a very brief summary of your main findings. 
• Describe any conclusions or implications . What might these results mean and what do they reveal about the body of research that exists on this particular topic?

Lab Reports and Articles

Psychology papers such as lab reports and APA format articles also often require an abstract. In these cases as well, the abstract should include all of the major elements of your paper, including an introduction, hypothesis, methods, results, and discussion.

Remember, although the abstract should be placed at the beginning of your paper (right after the title page), you will write the abstract last after you have completed a final draft of your paper.

To ensure that all of your APA formatting is correct, consider consulting a copy of the  Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association .

Keywords in an APA Abstract

After the paragraph containing the main elements of your abstract, you can also include keywords related to your paper. Such keywords are used when indexing your paper in databases and can help researchers and students locate your paper when searching for information about those topics.

Because keywords help people find your paper, it is essential to choose the right ones. The APA suggests including between three and five keywords.

You can identify keywords by thinking about what your paper is about. For example, if your paper focuses on how social media use is related to depression in teenagers, you might include the keywords: social media, mood, depression, adolescents, social networking sites 

A Word From Verywell

The abstract may be very brief, but it is so important that the official APA style manual identifies it as the most important paragraph in your entire paper. Careful attention to detail can ensure that your abstract does a good job representing the contents of your paper. If possible, take your paper to your school's writing lab for assistance.

Nagda S. How to write a scientific abstract. J Indian Prosthodont Soc. 2013;13(3):382–383. doi:10.1007/s13191-013-0299-x

Kumar A. Writing an abstract: Revealing the essence with eloquence .  J Indian Soc Periodontol . 2022;26(1):1-2. doi:10.4103/jisp.jisp_634_21

American Psychological Association. APA Style Journal Article Reporting Standards: Reporting Standards for Studies With an Experimental Manipulation .

American Psychological Association. APA Style Journal Article Reporting Standards: Quantitative Meta-Analysis Article Reporting Standards .

Tullu MS. Writing the title and abstract for a research paper: Being concise, precise, and meticulous is the key .  Saudi J Anaesth . 2019;13(Suppl 1):S12-S17. doi:10.4103/sja.SJA_685_18

American Psychological Association. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). American Psychological Association; 2019.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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An abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph of 300 words or less, the major aspects of the entire paper in a prescribed sequence that includes: 1) the overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s) you investigated; 2) the basic design of the study; 3) major findings or trends found as a result of your analysis; and, 4) a brief summary of your interpretations and conclusions.

Writing an Abstract. The Writing Center. Clarion University, 2009; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-first Century . Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing, 2010;

Importance of a Good Abstract

Sometimes your professor will ask you to include an abstract, or general summary of your work, with your research paper. The abstract allows you to elaborate upon each major aspect of the paper and helps readers decide whether they want to read the rest of the paper. Therefore, enough key information [e.g., summary results, observations, trends, etc.] must be included to make the abstract useful to someone who may want to examine your work.

How do you know when you have enough information in your abstract? A simple rule-of-thumb is to imagine that you are another researcher doing a similar study. Then ask yourself: if your abstract was the only part of the paper you could access, would you be happy with the amount of information presented there? Does it tell the whole story about your study? If the answer is "no" then the abstract likely needs to be revised.

Farkas, David K. “A Scheme for Understanding and Writing Summaries.” Technical Communication 67 (August 2020): 45-60;  How to Write a Research Abstract. Office of Undergraduate Research. University of Kentucky; Staiger, David L. “What Today’s Students Need to Know about Writing Abstracts.” International Journal of Business Communication January 3 (1966): 29-33; Swales, John M. and Christine B. Feak. Abstracts and the Writing of Abstracts . Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2009.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Types of Abstracts

To begin, you need to determine which type of abstract you should include with your paper. There are four general types.

Critical Abstract A critical abstract provides, in addition to describing main findings and information, a judgment or comment about the study’s validity, reliability, or completeness. The researcher evaluates the paper and often compares it with other works on the same subject. Critical abstracts are generally 400-500 words in length due to the additional interpretive commentary. These types of abstracts are used infrequently.

Descriptive Abstract A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract only describes the work being summarized. Some researchers consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short, 100 words or less. Informative Abstract The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the researcher presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the paper. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract [purpose, methods, scope] but it also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is usually no more than 300 words in length.

Highlight Abstract A highlight abstract is specifically written to attract the reader’s attention to the study. No pretense is made of there being either a balanced or complete picture of the paper and, in fact, incomplete and leading remarks may be used to spark the reader’s interest. In that a highlight abstract cannot stand independent of its associated article, it is not a true abstract and, therefore, rarely used in academic writing.

II.  Writing Style

Use the active voice when possible , but note that much of your abstract may require passive sentence constructions. Regardless, write your abstract using concise, but complete, sentences. Get to the point quickly and always use the past tense because you are reporting on a study that has been completed.

Abstracts should be formatted as a single paragraph in a block format and with no paragraph indentations. In most cases, the abstract page immediately follows the title page. Do not number the page. Rules set forth in writing manual vary but, in general, you should center the word "Abstract" at the top of the page with double spacing between the heading and the abstract. The final sentences of an abstract concisely summarize your study’s conclusions, implications, or applications to practice and, if appropriate, can be followed by a statement about the need for additional research revealed from the findings.

Composing Your Abstract

Although it is the first section of your paper, the abstract should be written last since it will summarize the contents of your entire paper. A good strategy to begin composing your abstract is to take whole sentences or key phrases from each section of the paper and put them in a sequence that summarizes the contents. Then revise or add connecting phrases or words to make the narrative flow clearly and smoothly. Note that statistical findings should be reported parenthetically [i.e., written in parentheses].

Before handing in your final paper, check to make sure that the information in the abstract completely agrees with what you have written in the paper. Think of the abstract as a sequential set of complete sentences describing the most crucial information using the fewest necessary words. The abstract SHOULD NOT contain:

• A catchy introductory phrase, provocative quote, or other device to grab the reader's attention,
• Lengthy background or contextual information,
• Redundant phrases, unnecessary adverbs and adjectives, and repetitive information;
• Acronyms or abbreviations,
• References to other literature [say something like, "current research shows that..." or "studies have indicated..."],
• Using ellipticals [i.e., ending with "..."] or incomplete sentences,
• Jargon or terms that may be confusing to the reader,
• Citations to other works, and
• Any sort of image, illustration, figure, or table, or references to them.

Abstract. Writing Center. University of Kansas; Abstract. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Abstracts. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Borko, Harold and Seymour Chatman. "Criteria for Acceptable Abstracts: A Survey of Abstracters' Instructions." American Documentation 14 (April 1963): 149-160; Abstracts. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Hartley, James and Lucy Betts. "Common Weaknesses in Traditional Abstracts in the Social Sciences." Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 60 (October 2009): 2010-2018; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-first Century. Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing, 2010; Procter, Margaret. The Abstract. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Riordan, Laura. “Mastering the Art of Abstracts.” The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 115 (January 2015 ): 41-47; Writing Report Abstracts. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing Abstracts. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-First Century . Oxford, UK: 2010; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Writing Tip

Never Cite Just the Abstract!

Citing to just a journal article's abstract does not confirm for the reader that you have conducted a thorough or reliable review of the literature. If the full-text is not available, go to the USC Libraries main page and enter the title of the article [NOT the title of the journal]. If the Libraries have a subscription to the journal, the article should appear with a link to the full-text or to the journal publisher page where you can get the article. If the article does not appear, try searching Google Scholar using the link on the USC Libraries main page. If you still can't find the article after doing this, contact a librarian or you can request it from our free i nterlibrary loan and document delivery service .

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How to Write an Abstract

An abstract of a work, usually of an essay, is a concise summary of its main points. It is meant to concentrate the argument of a work, presenting it as clearly as possible.

The abstract often appears after the title and before the main body of an essay. If you are writing an abstract as part of an assignment, you should check with your instructor about where to place it.

Here are a few guidelines to follow when composing an abstract:

• In general, avoid too much copying and pasting directly from your essay, especially from the first paragraph. An abstract is often presented directly before an essay, and it will often be the first thing readers consult after your title. You wouldn’t repeat your ideas verbatim in the body of your essay, so why would you do that in an abstract? Consider the abstract part of the work itself. 
• Start off strong. An abstract should be a mini essay, so it should begin with a clear statement of your argument. This should be the first sentence or two.
• Abstracts vary in length. But a good rule is to aim for five to seven sentences. The bulk of the abstract will review the evidence for your claim and summarize your findings.
• Avoid complicated syntax. Long sentences and intricate phrasing have their place in essays, but the abstract should be concise. It is not the place for ambitious grammar.
• The last sentence or two should point to any conclusions reached and the direction future research might take. Like the first sentence, the last should be provocative and direct. Leave your readers wanting to read your essay.

In what follows, the authors have written an effective abstract that adheres to the basic principles above:

Literary critics have long imagined that T. S. Eliot’s The Sacred Wood (1920) shaped the canon and methods of countless twentieth-century classrooms. This essay turns instead to the classroom that made The Sacred Wood : the Modern English Literature extension school tutorial that Eliot taught to working-class adults between 1916 and 1919. Contextualizing Eliot’s tutorial within the extension school movement shows how the ethos and practices of the Workers’ Educational Association shaped his teaching. Over the course of three years, Eliot and his students reimagined canonical literature as writing by working poets for working people—a model of literary history that fully informed his canon reformation in The Sacred Wood . This example demonstrates how attention to teaching changes the history of English literary study. It further reveals how all kinds of institutions, not just elite universities, have shaped the discipline’s methods and canons. (Buurma and Heffernan)

This abstract uses the first two sentences to establish the essay’s place in its field of study and to suggest how it intervenes in existing scholarship. The syntax is direct and simple. The third sentence begins to outline how the authors will support their argument. They aim to demonstrate the relevance of Eliot’s teaching to his ideas about literature, and so they move next to discuss some of the details of that teaching. Finally, the abstract concludes by telling us about the consequences of this argument. The conclusion both points to new directions for research and tells us why we should read the essay. 

Buurma, Rachel Sagner, and Laura Heffernan. Abstract of “The Classroom in the Canon: T. S. Eliot’s Modern English Literature Extension Course for Working People and  The Sacred Wood. ”  PMLA , vol. 133, no. 2, Mar. 2018, p. 463.

Estate Best 18 July 2021 AT 05:07 AM

Please how will I write an abstract for my own poem collections?

Your e-mail address will not be published

Marc Simoes 01 April 2022 AT 04:04 PM

I am teaching students how to format and write an abstract, but I find no precise guidelines in the MLA Handbook. Should the first word of the abstract body text begin with the word "Abstract" followed by a period or colon and then the abstract content? Should the word "Abstract" be underlined? Over the years, I was taught both of these ways by different instructors, but I haven't found any definitive instructions, and now my students are asking me the correct format. Please help! Thank you!

Joseph Wallace 12 April 2022 AT 01:04 PM

Although publishers like the MLA will use their own house style guidelines for abstracts in published material, there is no one correct way for students to format their abstracts. Instructors should decide what works best for their classes and assignments.

Lorraine Belo 17 April 2022 AT 10:04 PM

Can you write a brief abstract about your MLA writing

Subrata Biswas 13 July 2023 AT 10:07 AM

Generally, the abstract is written in Italics. Is there any rule as such?

Joseph Wallace 31 July 2023 AT 10:07 AM

Thanks for your question. There is no rule saying that abstracts need to be written in italics. Some publications use italics for abstracts and some do not.

Dhan 07 January 2024 AT 12:01 PM

Should I write key words at the end of the abstract of Phd dissertation?

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How to Write an Abstract

How to write an abstract for a conference, what is an abstract and why is it important, an abstract is a brief summary of your research or creative project, usually about a paragraph long (250-350 words), and is written when you are ready to present your research or included in a thesis or research publication..

For additional support in writing your abstract, you can contact the Office of URSA at [email protected]  or schedule a time to meet with a Writing and Research Consultant at the OSU Writing Center 

Main Components of an Abstract: 

The opening sentences should summarize your topic and describe what researchers already know, with reference to the literature. 

A brief discussion that clearly states the purpose of your research or creative project. This should give general background information on your work and allow people from different fields to understand what you are talking about. Use verbs like investigate, analyze, test, etc. to describe how you began your work. 

In this section you will be discussing the ways in which your research was performed and the type of tools or methodological techniques you used to conduct your research. 

This is where you describe the main findings of your research study and what you have learned. Try to include only the most important findings of your research that will allow the reader to understand your conclusions. If you have not completed the project, talk about your anticipated results and what you expect the outcomes of the study to be. 

Significance

This is the final section of your abstract where you summarize the work performed. This is where you also discuss the relevance of your work and how it advances your field and the scientific field in general.

• Your word count for a conference may be limited, so make your abstract as clear and concise as possible.
• Organize it by using good transition words found on the lef so the information flows well.
• Have your abstract proofread and receive feedback from your supervisor, advisor, peers, writing center, or other professors from different disciplines. 
• Double-check on the guidelines for your abstract and adhere to any formatting or word count requirements.
• Do not include bibliographic references or footnotes. 
• Avoid the overuse of technical terms or jargon. 

Feeling stuck? Visit the OSU ScholarsArchive for more abstract examples related to your field

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PRDV009: Writing Grant Proposals

Project summary abstract guidelines.

Read this document from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, which provides tips for writing project summaries/abstracts and two sample abstracts. The text states, "The narrative must not exceed one page, single-spaced, and should briefly describe: 1. the needs that will be addressed, 2. the proposed services, and 3. the client population group(s) to be served."

Project Summary/Abstract Tool

All Community Economic Development (CED) and Job Opportunities for Low-Income Individuals (JOLI) grant applicants must include a project summary/abstract that provides an overview of the proposed project as part of the grant application. The Funding Opportunity Announcement defines a project summary/abstract as a concise summary of the applicant's project description. The project summary/abstract should briefly describe the needs that will be addressed, the proposed services , and the client population group(s) to be served. It should not refer to other parts of the application.

While applicants may structure their project summaries/abstracts in various ways, the tips for project summaries/abstracts and sample project summaries/abstracts provided in this tool outline the required components for this portion of the application and provide guidance for writing a successful project summary/abstract.

Please note that this tool is designed to help you prepare and submit your application, but it does not replace or take the place of the information and requirements presented in this year's Funding Opportunity Announcement. This year's Funding Opportunity Announcement should be reviewed closely and all required information should be provided in your application.

Tips for Project Summaries/Abstracts

Required components . Applicants can write project summaries/abstracts in a variety of ways, but the narrative must not exceed one-page , single-spaced , and should briefly describe (1) the needs that will be addressed, (2) the proposed services, and (3) the client population group(s) to be served.

Applicants must also include the following items at the top of the abstract:

• Project Title
• Applicant Name
• Contact Phone Numbers (Voice, Fax)
• Email Address
• Web Site Address, if applicable

Provide demographic information of the target population . Applicants should provide a summary of the target population with whom they will be working in the project summary/abstract. The summary/abstract should also include detailed demographic information, such as poverty, literacy, and unemployment rates, to give reviewers a better sense of the community.

Explain how the project will overcome one or more community barriers . The project summary/abstract should explain how the applicant's project will work to overcome one or more current community barriers. For example, if the abstract states that the target area has a high unemployment rate, it should also describe how the proposed project will create employment opportunities.

Demonstrate the feasibility of the project. The applicant should demonstrate that it can feasibly implement the scope of work described in the project abstract using the funds requested along with leveraged funds as appropriate. The abstract, however, should not include a detailed financial analysis of the project. This more detailed description should be included in the financial viability narrative.

State if the project is eligible for bonus points . The CED and JOLI Funding Opportunity Announcements list multiple types of projects that are eligible for bonus points. The project abstract should clearly indicate if the proposed project is eligible for these bonus points. Please refer to the CED and JOLI Funding Opportunity Announcements for a list of projects eligible for bonus points under these two programs.

Sample Project Summaries/Abstracts

Two sample project summaries/abstracts are provided in this tool. The project summaries/abstracts, though structured differently, incorporate all of the required components as well as other key elements that make for a strong project summary/abstract. Please note all information provided in these sample project summaries/abstracts is fictional and is not connected to any particular individual or organization.

Sample CED Project Summary/Abstract 1: Economic Community Development Council 1

The Springfield Transportation Empowerment Project

Economic Community Development Council 1000 Vineyard Rd. Springfield, NH 12345 Phone: (555) 555-9999, Fax: (555) 555-9991 [email protected] www.website.com

The Economic Community Development Council (ECDC) is a 501(c)(3) whose mission is to create longterm social and economic change for low-income residents of the Springfield community. ECDC has operated for over 25 years in the Springfield area and has launched several community economic development ventures using nonprofit, private, and governmental funding sources.

For many years, Springfield has been one of the statistically poorest communities in the United States. According to the most recent U.S. Census estimates, 23% of Springfield residents live below the Federal poverty level, the unemployment rate is 19%, and 42% of adults do not have a high school diploma.

Though Springfield has experienced significant population growth over the past decade, the city lacks the commercial infrastructure and skilled workforce to expand existing businesses or support new enterprise. Most individuals are only able to obtain unskilled labor positions that lack a living wage or long-term stability.

ECDC is requesting $900,000 from OCS's CED grant to implement the Springfield Transportation Empowerment Project. This project will take place solely in New Hampshire, where there is not currently a CED or JOLI project.

This initiative will create 75 new full-time positions ($12,000 per job). These jobs will be created by ECDC Truck Driving Authority (TDA), a workforce subdivision of ECDC. TDA will create 65 new jobs, 45 will be full-time truck driver positions and 20 will be administrative and support positions.

Additionally, ECDC will provide specialized training and technical assistance and loan dollars to existing Springfield trucking businesses to increase capacity and create an additional ten jobs. Of these 75 new jobs, at least 65 will go to TANF participants.

In addition to job creation, ECDC will use OCS funding to develop an educational revolving loan fund to offer program participants CDL truck driving training courses. ECDC's partner, Strongforth CDL Training School, will run these courses.

The purpose of the educational training will not only be to create more high-paying wage positions, but also give participants the capabilities to qualify for long-term skilled positions within Springfield's emerging transportation industry.

The $900,000 request will cover all project start-up expenses, subsidize the trucking business's operations for the first five years, and develop a revolving educational loan fund. Beyond OCS funding, ECDC will leverage $200,000 from community investments.

By the conclusion of the grant period, the business will be self-sustainable. ECDC will also use existing funding from the Small Business Administration (SBA), the U.S. Treasury Community Development Financial Institutions (CDFI) Fund, the Springfield Department of Development, and the Jefferson County Economic Development and Planning Department to supplement the activities and increase the impact of the project.

1 Please note all information provided here is fictional and is not connected to any particular individual or organization.

Sample JOLI Project Summary/Abstract 2: Urban Innovation Strategies 2

Project Title: MicroAdvantage Applicant : ABCD Urban Innovations Strategies Contact : Roberto Alvarez, Executive Director 13 Middlefield Road La Quinita, TX 12345 Phone: (724) 555-5555, Fax: (724) 555-5555 [email protected] www.website.com

ABCD Urban Innovation Strategies is an economic development nonprofit that serves some of La Quinta's poorest neighborhoods. Our mission is to strengthen disadvantaged neighborhoods by improving commercial vitality, expanding micro-enterprises, and creating jobs. During the past 20 years, Urban Innovation Strategies has aided over 4,000 small business owners and acquired $20 million in financing. These efforts have helped to create 500 jobs for La Quinta's citizens.

La Quinta is a distressed city where 35% of residents live below the poverty level and 15% are unemployed. Thirty percent of La Quinita's population is Latino with 20 percent stating that they do not feel comfortable speaking English in a professional environment.

ABCD Urban Innovation Strategies is requesting $350,000 from OCS's JOLI grant to develop MicroAdvantage, a training and technical assistance program for La Quinita's low-income entrepreneurs. The program will run from November 2010–October 2013.

MicroAdvantage is designed to help clients overcome obstacles to creating sustainable small businesses as well as ensure their long-term economic success. The program will recruit 60 TANF participants to participate in 9-week small business training program.

The program will be comprised of 65 hours of classroom training that will include business plan writing, basic financial management, and tutorials for integrating technology into a small business. All instructors will be volunteers from a variety of fields including accounting, finance, marketing, and legal. Volunteer mentors will also help program graduates start their own businesses. JOLI funding will also be used to provide direct financing to these micro-enterprises as well as follow up technical assistance, as necessary, for two additional years.

We estimate that after our training program 50 participants will launch micro-enterprises which will create 15 additional jobs. At least 60% of these jobs will have some type of career advancement opportunity. The cost/job ratio will be $5384 ($350,000/65).

By assisting low-income residents of La Quinita to develop micro-businesses, Urban Innovation Strategies provides a unique form of economic as well as community development in a city that ranks as one of the most depressed in the area.

Beyond benefitting program enrollees, MicroAdvantage will help the larger La Quinita community. Entrepreneurship helps foster a community sprit that enables residents of distressed communities to share the benefits of commercial revitalization. By helping to increase the wealth of La Quinita, MicroAdvantage will also indirectly help create organizations that provide child care, food assistance, and other social services.

The staff working for this project is Roberto Alvarez, executive director, and Janet Smith, program assistant.

2 Please note all information provided here is fictional and is not connected to any particular individual or organization.

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Writing documents is already a part of the lives of people. May it be students who need to pass academic requirements or employees who are tasked to submit a written report, there will always be a reason why people will write within the scope of their functions and responsibilities.

Writing skills are essential to assure that the written output will be highly-usable and relevant to the reason why the document has been created. No matter if it is  freelance writing or business writing, it is very important to always be aware of the format and content of a document. This post can help you create different kinds of articles and other written works through our curation of free writing examples and templates.

Summary Writing Example

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Descriptive Writing Example

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Writing skills that is thought to an individual. However, it is only the technical aspect of the specified activity For you to be able to write a document, you need to be guided by both creativity and writing principles. You can improve on free writing by following these tips:

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Having writing samples can provide a lot of advantages. It is all up to you on how you will use them appropriately especially in relation to the functions that you would like them to serve.

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• Published: 15 May 2024

Configurational impact of self-regulated writing strategy, writing anxiety, and perceived writing difficulty on EFL writing performance: an fsQCA approach

• Cunying Fan 1 &
• Juan Wang 1  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  11125 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Previous research has indicated that writing performance of foreign/second language (L2) learners is influenced by their utilization of self-regulated writing strategies. Yet, the relationship between various self-regulated strategies and individual characteristics, such as writing anxiety and perceived writing difficulty, has not been sufficiently examined. To bridge this gap, this study classified self-regulated writing strategies into four distinct types: cognitive, metacognitive, social behavioral, and motivational. These types were combined with L2 learners’ writing anxiety and writing difficulty to form conceptual models to predict high or low writing performance. Fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) was used to gain a detailed understanding of the causal intricacies of writing performance. Data was collected from a sample of 94 students attending a university in eastern China. fsQCA revealed a variety of configurations associated with EFL writing performance, with six of them leading to high performance and four to low performance. These configurations highlight the complex causal relationship between students’ use of self-regulated writing strategies and their writing performance, while considering their writing anxiety and perceived writing difficulty. The study provided theoretical and practical implications for L2 teachers and educators who wish to enhance L2 learners’ writing performance.

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Introduction.

In our globalized world, English’s role as the primary language for international communication has rendered English writing skills increasingly important, particularly in non-English-speaking countries like China. However, writing in English poses notable challenges for EFL learners 1 . These challenges arise partly because writing requires the recollection of information from memory, the organization of thoughts, the transformation of ideas into linguistic forms, the employment of writing instruments to articulate these ideas on paper, and the revision of the text to produce a polished and coherent final product 2 . Furthermore, research on Chinese university students shows that their performance in English writing is frequently hampered by encountered difficulties, experienced anxiety, and challenges in effectively regulating their writing 3 , 4 , underscoring the importance of a comprehensive understanding of the factors impacting their writing performance.

Self-regulated learning (SRL) involves individuals actively and deliberately taking charge of their learning processes. Self-regulated learners plan, monitor, and manage cognitive, motivational, emotional, and behavioral aspects of learning to gain knowledge and acquire skills 5 , 6 . Applying SRL to writing involves a strategic approach where learners proactively set writing goals, employ and monitor suitable writing strategies, and engage in reflective practices to evaluate and improve their writing. This method helps in effectively managing writing-related challenges such as anxiety and perceived difficulties, thereby enhancing overall writing performance. SRL in writing encapsulates a holistic process of planning, executing, and revising, fostering a more competent and confident approach to writing tasks.

Research has shown that self-regulated writing strategies can be beneficial in enhancing writing proficiency 7 , 8 . Students who implement these strategies tend to have better writing performance and higher self-efficacy 9 , 10 . Writing anxiety is an emotional, mental, or behavioural impediment to a writing task which leaners are cognitively capable of completing 11 . If learners suffer from writing anxiety, they may focus more on the details than the flow of the text, leading to mistakes and a lack of sincerity in the writing 12 and are inversely related to writing performance 13 . Learners’ perception of writing difficulty is shaped by their proficiency and affective factors along with the complexity of the task they are assigned 14 . This is related to how much cognitive resources is required to successfully complete the task 15 , which ultimately affects their writing performance. Previous research has explored the individual effects of self-regulated writing strategies, writing anxiety, and writing difficulty on writing performance, but none have provided a comprehensive insight into the intricate relationship between them. This study employs fsQCA to investigate how students’ self-regulated writing strategies, along with the interrelated variables of writing anxiety and writing difficulty, collectively and configurationally influence their writing performance.

In this study, we utilize fsQCA, a configurational approach, to explore the complexities of the writing process. The term “configuration” here refers to the unique combination and interplay of various factors—self-regulated writing strategies, writing anxiety, writing difficulty, and EFL writing performance—within a complex system. Opting for fsQCA enables us to examine the non-linear interactions and cumulative effects of continuous variables 16 , thereby extending our analysis beyond conventional linear methodologies. Our goal with fsQCA is to reveal how different configurations of these factors influence EFL learners’ writing performance, offering an in-depth understanding of the intricate and multifaceted nature of the writing process.

This study enriches the EFL writing literature by utilizing fsQCA within the framework of self-regulated learning. It constructs and validates an intricate model to identify the determinants of high or low writing performance. This approach enables an in-depth examination of the interplay among key factors such as self-regulated writing strategies, writing anxiety, and writing difficulty. Our analysis of these factors’ configurations advances a non-linear and comprehensive understanding of writing performance. The insights gained from this study are invaluable, offering researchers and educators new perspectives to effectively tackle the diverse and complex challenges prevalent in EFL writing education.

Literature review and research model

Self-regulated learning.

SRL is a process where individuals actively manage their own learning. This involves not only focusing on acquiring knowledge and skills but also managing cognitive, motivational, emotional, and behavioral aspects 5 , 6 . Self-regulated learners set goals, strategize, and reflect on their learning, believing that strategic application of these skills enhances academic achievement 17 . However, many students face challenges in effectively self-regulating their learning due to the complex and demanding nature of this process, potentially leading to cognitive overload 18 .

Incorporating SRL into the context of writing, particularly for addressing the challenges like writing anxiety, perceived writing difficulties, and writing performance, involves learners actively engaging in the SRL cycle to enhance their writing skills. This includes setting clear goals for writing tasks (forethought phase), employing and monitoring effective writing strategies (performance phase), and reflecting on the writing process to identify areas for improvement (self-reflection phase). By doing so, learners can manage their cognitive and emotional responses to writing tasks, reducing anxiety and perceived difficulties, and ultimately improving their overall writing performance. This proactive and strategic approach in the writing process exemplifies the essence of SRL in action, demonstrating its practical application in overcoming common writing challenges.

Self-regulated writing strategy and writing performance

Self-regulated writing strategies have been found to be influential in writing proficiency and L2 writing quality 19 , 20 . Studies have shown that the implementation of such strategies can result in a marked improvement in writing proficiency 21 , particularly for those who struggle to acquire the necessary writing skills 22 . These strategies are essential in motivating, inspiring, and sustaining the dedication and perseverance of learners 23 , 24 , thus leading to better writing outcomes and improved writing performance 25 . Students who do not possess self-regulated writing strategies are more likely to experience negative emotions and be discouraged when confronted with writing tasks 20 , 26 , 27 . This can have a detrimental effect on their writing performance.

Teng and Zhang 8 proposed a model for self-regulated strategies in L2 writing, comprised of cognitive, metacognitive, social-behavioral, and motivational regulation dimensions. Cognitive strategies refer to the techniques utilized by L2 writers to manage information processing while completing a task. Metacognitive strategies encompass the management of cognitive processes to make the most of cognitive resources and meet the requirements of the task. Social-behavioral strategies involve the efforts of L2 writers to adjust their learning behaviors in response to contextual and environmental factors. Finally, motivational regulation strategies denote the methods employed by L2 writers to sustain or increase their motivation, which can ultimately improve their engagement and success in completing the task. This study builds on Teng and Zhang’s 8 model of self-regulated writing strategies, which acknowledges the multifaceted nature of self-regulated writing strategies 28 , and is specifically designed for Chinese university students, the same population this research is targeting. This study further investigates the various kinds of these strategies.

Research has demonstrated the impact of various self-regulated writing strategies on writing performance. Zimmerman 29 emphasized the importance of emotional control strategies in managing negative emotions, such as anxiety or worries about writing. Bai et al. 22 found that primary school students used various writing strategies, such as monitoring, evaluating, planning, resourcing, revising, and text-generating strategies, which were associated with their English competence. De Silva and Graham 9 showed that proficiency in metacognitive writing strategies, including planning, monitoring, and evaluation, had a positive effect on writing outcomes. Qin and Zhang 30 proposed that self-regulated writing strategies, such as evaluating, monitoring, and planning, were essential factors in predicting writing performance. Teng et al. 25 revealed that in an EFL setting, writing performance of secondary school students is contingent on their understanding and application of writing strategies related to emotional control, goal-oriented evaluation, goal-oriented monitoring, memorization, metacognitive judgment, and planning.

However, while the benefits of self-regulated writing strategies are well-documented, the literature reveals a gap in understanding how these strategies interact with individual learner characteristics, such as writing anxiety and perceived writing difficulty. Most studies have focused on the strategies themselves, rather than how they combine with other factors to influence L2 writing performance. For instance, the model proposed by Teng and Zhang 8 categorizes self-regulated strategies into cognitive, metacognitive, social-behavioral, and motivational dimensions but does not fully explore their interplay with individual psychological factors in an L2 writing context. The present study seeks to bridge this gap by examining the relationship between different types of self-regulated writing strategies, writing anxiety, and perceived writing difficulty, and their combined effect on L2 writing performance.

Writing anxiety and writing performance

Anxiety related to writing can be a distinct form of anxiety 31 , 32 . Individuals who experience high levels of anxiety in writing tend to view writing as an unfulfilling task and it is possible for them to refrain from enrolling in writing classes and participating in situations where their written work will be assessed 33 . According to Cheng 31 , writing anxiety can be divided into three distinct categories: somatic, cognitive, and behavioral. Somatic anxiety is characterized by physical symptoms, such as a racing heart, gastrointestinal distress, and a feeling of tension. Cognitive anxiety is more psychological in nature, and involves worrying about one’s performance, having negative expectations, and being concerned about how others will view one's writing. Behavioral anxiety is demonstrated through avoidance, particularly in the form of avoiding writing. Cheng 31 found that all three types of writing anxiety were negatively correlated with individuals’ enthusiasm for English writing courses, motivation to write in English, self-assurance in their English writing ability, and their performance on a timed English composition task.

Research has demonstrated that writing anxiety has a detrimental effect on writing performance 34 , 35 . Specifically, Zabihi 34 found that writing anxiety had an adverse impact on the complexity, accuracy, and fluency of narrative performance, while Zabihi et al. 35 found that it led to an increase in the number of errors present in students’ narratives. Furthermore, Abolhasani et al. 36 found that undergraduates’ graph writing performance was impaired by their L2 writing anxiety. Conversely, writers with low levels of anxiety have been observed to exhibit fewer anxious writing behaviors, devote more time to ideation, produce multiple drafts, and allocate greater amounts of time to the writing process 37 .

Previous research has indicated a negative correlation between writing anxiety and writing performance, however, Lee 38 conducted a study on Taiwanese EFL learners and found that writing anxiety did not have a significant effect on their writing performance. Payant et al. 39 conducted another study that revealed writing anxiety to be a favorable predictor of performance on a source-based writing task. This was attributed to the fact that test anxiety, which had a beneficial effect on performance, was often experienced by participants. These conflicting results highlight the need for further investigation into how writing anxiety influences L2 writing performance.

Perceived writing difficulty and writing performance

Writing difficulty perceived by L2 writers is a subjective judgement, which is significantly affected by their skill level and emotional state 14 .This perception is based on the allocation of cognitive resources or the mental effort required to fulfill the demands of the writing task 15 , which is a result of the interplay between personal endowments and features of writing tasks 40 . To gain a thorough comprehension of writing performance, it is essential to take into account writing difficulty perceived by L2 learners 14 , as this provides an essential explanation of the mental effort needed to handle cognitive loads in L2 writing.

Owing to the increased cognitive and linguistic demands involved in writing in a non-native language, a significant proportion of EFL learners perceive English writing as a difficult and challenging task. Rabab’ah 41 observed that those who come from Asian universities often encountered difficulties when attempting to adjust to the requisites of English academic writing. The presence of negative thoughts about L2 writing or perceived difficulties regarding L2 writing had a significant impact on L2 writers’ ability to convey their ideas in writing 42 , thus influenced their writing performance. In addition to other factors, writing instructors concurred that students’ perception of difficult with EFL academic writing was a contributing factor to their poor writing performance 43 . Despited the negative influece of writing difficulty perception on writing performance, Wei and Zhang 44 found that the degree of difficulty that L2 writers perceive in L2 writing could be indicative of their awareness of the inadequacy of their L2 writing knowledge or their uncertainty about the L2 writing process. This perception of writing difficutl could prompt Chinese EFL student writers to utilize their L1 rhetorical knowledge to aid in their L2 composing processes.

There has been a dearth of research examining the impact of perceived writing difficulty on the writing performance of L2 learners, let alone the interplay between this perception, self-regulated writing strategies, and writing anxiety. Consequently, this study examined these three factors and explored how they configurate to influence writing performance of L2 learners.

Interplay of self-regulated writing strategy, writing anxiety, and perceived writing difficulty

In the realm of L2 writing research, the intricate interplay of strategy use, anxiety, and task difficulty has been explored to understand their collective impact on L2 writing performance. Zhou et al. 45 used a structural equation modeling approach to investigate the relationships among L2 writing anxiety, L2 writing self-efficacy, L2 writing self-regulated strategies and L2 writing engagement, and possible mediators that regulate the effect of individual factors. A questionnaire was administered to 340 Chinese high school students and L2 writing anxiety was found negatively associated with L2 writing self-regulated strategies. Manson et al. 46 discovered that the development of self-regulated strategies significantly and positively impacts students with learning disabilities (LD) across both elementary and secondary education levels. Notably, these strategies have been effective in reducing the students’ perceived writing difficulties.

QCA in L2 writing

Understanding the application and importance of qualitative comparative analysis (QCA) in L2 writing research is crucial, given the complex nature of language learning and writing processes. QCA, as a method, stands out for its ability to handle complexity and multifaceted phenomena, which are inherent in L2 writing. This method is particularly suitable for analyzing L2 writing because it allows for the examination of various combinations of causal conditions (such as language proficiency, cognitive strategies, first language influence, and instructional methods) and their relationship to writing outcomes. Employing QCA, Mallahi et al. 47 explored the role of a set of cognitive (i.e., aptitude and working memory) and motivational (i.e., self-regulatory capacity and self-efficacy beliefs) individual difference variables in the writing quality and composing behavior of 78 Iranian undergraduate EFL learners.

The applicability of QCA is further highlighted by its capacity to accommodate diverse data types and sources, making it well-suited for interdisciplinary research like L2 writing studies, which often integrate linguistic, psychological, and educational perspectives. Sazideh and Mallahi 48 employed a qualitative case study approach, incorporating techniques like narrative construction and qualitative comparative analysis. They examined how individuals with diverse cognitive characteristics, including language learning aptitude and working memory, respond to various forms of feedback (e.g., direct, indirect with error codes, metalinguistic with explanations) on linguistic aspects of their writing. Additionally, they analyzed how these characteristics might impact their learning from the feedback, illustrating the influence of temporal and proficiency-related factors on the L2 writing process. This methodological versatility is essential for dissecting the layered dimensions of L2 writing, providing a more comprehensive understanding of how various factors interact to influence writing proficiency. Therefore, QCA emerges not just as a choice but as a necessary tool for researchers aiming to construct a holistic picture of L2 writing, accommodating its inherent complexity and the interplay of multiple influential factors.

A review of the literature has revealed a lack of understanding regarding the relationship between self-regulated writing strategies, writing anxiety, and writing difficulty and their impact on L2 writing performance. More precise and insightful outcomes can be obtained by taking into account the configurations of these factors. This study aims to answer the following question:

What configurations of self-regulated writing strategies, writing anxiety, and perceived writing difficulty, are associated with high and low writing performance in Chinese EFL learners?

Conceptual model

Research has indicated that self-regulated writing strategies are influential in determining L2 writing performance. However, the types of self-regulated writing strategies have not been fully explored. Moreover, the impact of such strategies may become complex when learners’ perception of writing anxiety and writing difficult is taken into consideration. Therefore, following Teng and Zhang 8 , we categorized writing strategies into cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, social-behavioral strategies, and motivational regulation strategies and integrated them with writing anxiety and writing difficulty to examine the interaction between these factors and their impact on writing performance. To investigate this relationship, we propose a conceptual model. Our model posits that EFL writing is a multifarious and intricate process, wherein writing performance can be accounted for by configuration of self-regulated writing strategies, writing anxiety, and perceived writing difficulty. Figure  1 showed our configurational research model.

Venn diagram of the conceptual model. CS cognitive strategies, MS metacognitive strategies, SBS social-behavioral strategies, MRS motivational regulation strategies, WA writing anxiety, WD writing difficulty.

Fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis

Qualitative comparative analysis (QCA) bridges the gap between qualitative and quantitative research 49 . It is a configurational approach that recognizes that social phenomena are often interconnected rather than isolated 16 . It comprises three modes of operation: crisp set QCA, multi-value set QCA, and fuzzy set QCA 50 . fsQCA is the chosen methodology for this study as it is especially suitable for dealing with issues that involve categorical variables as well as continuous variables 16 . It is useful to handle complex issues such as writing performance, which is affected by multiple factors.

The fsQCA is particularly effective for this analysis as it can explore how different combinations of variables contribute to writing performance, moving beyond the limitations of traditional statistical methods that typically focus on isolated impacts of individual variables. The use of fsQCA is advantageous in the context of language learning, which often involves complex, non-linear interactions among factors. This method allows us to identify specific configurations of factors that produce particular outcomes, providing a nuanced understanding of the collective impact of these elements on EFL writing performance. Our choice of fsQCA, especially considering our sample size of 94 participants, aligns with the recommendations of Poorkavoos et al. 51 . They noted the method’s suitability for small to medium-sized samples and its ability to uncover intricate causal relationships that might not be evident in larger datasets suited for regression analysis.

Participants

A total of 107 undergraduate and postgraduate students from a university in Eastern China voluntarily participated in the 2022 FLTRP∙ETIC Cup English Writing Contest, a highly regarded annual national event. These participants were recruited through an open call for entries to all eligible students at the university, allowing any interested student to sign up freely. This process ensured that the selection of the 107 participants was random and voluntary, reflecting a diverse and representative sample. Out of these, 94 students completed a paper questionnaire that explored their use of self-regulated writing strategies, along with perceptions of writing anxiety and difficulty, resulting in an 87.85% response rate. The questionnaires were distributed following the contest, ensuring that the participants’ responses were based on their direct and recent experiences in the contest. This approach aimed to accurately capture and understand the self-regulation strategies and experiences of university students in English writing contexts.

Out of the 94 participants, 26 (27.66%) were male and 68 (72.34%) were female. Furthermore, 12 (12.77%) were postgraduates and 82 (87.23%) were undergraduates. 50% of the participants specialized in English, while the other half majored in non-English subjects. Figure  2 provides a visual representation of the participants’ demographic information.

Demographic information of participants (n = 94).

• Writing performance

To accurately measure the writing performance of participants, we utilized the scores from the 2022 FLTRP∙ETIC Cup English Writing Contest, recognized as the most prestigious writing contest in China. The contest, spanning a duration of two hours, challenged participants in both argumentative and expository writing. It was evaluated on a total score of 100 points, with criteria based on comprehensive, rigorous, and equitable standards.

The judging criteria were detailed as follows: 40% on Content/Ideas, 30% on Organization/Development, 30% on Language. These criteria ensured a thorough assessment of participants’ ability to express clear ideas, organize content coherently, and use language effectively. Additionally, the contest utilized the iWrite English writing teaching and rating system for automated scoring support. This system, with a correction accuracy rate of 98% and a recall rate of 70%, ensures high consistency between human and machine ratings, with a consistency rate of 0.9. The system evaluates based on four dimensions: language, content, structure, and technical standards, offering customized scoring for different genres like application documents, argumentative essays, expository essays, narrative essays, and academic writing.

By employing these stringent and equitable criteria, along with advanced automated scoring technology, the contest provided an accurate assessment of participants’ writing performance, reflecting their skills in argumentative and expository writing.

• Self-regulated writing strategies

The Writing Strategies for Self-Regulated Learning Questionnaire 8 , was used to evaluate the application of self-regulated writing strategies. This questionnaire comprised 40 items, focusing on dimensions of cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, social-behavioral strategies, and motivational regulation strategies. Each measured on a 7-point Liker scale, with scores ranging from 1 (not at all true of me) to 7 (very true of me).

Cognitive strategies (CS) refer to the strategies that students employ to process and utilize information or knowledge while completing a writing task. This dimension encompasses two aspects, namely text processing and course memory. The former, consisting of 6 items, assesses students’ utilization of linguistic, rhetorical, and discourse knowledge to produce a written text (e.g., When writing, I check the structure for logical coherence). The latter, comprising 3 items, evaluates students’ active retention of writing knowledge acquired from writing courses (e.g., I write useful words and expressions taught in writing courses to help me remember them).

Metacognitive strategies (MS) encompass three kinds of abilities that empower learners to manage and manipulate their own cognition and cognitive resources to fulfill the requirements of particular writing tasks. Idea planning, consisting of 3 items, refers to the specific behavior of generating ideas before writing (e.g., Before writing, I use the Internet to search for related information to help me plan). Goal-oriented monitoring and evaluating, consisting of 6 items, includes a range of strategies such as setting goals to direct writing activities (e.g., When learning to write, I set up goals for myself in order to direct my learning activities) and monitoring and evaluating knowledge and performance mastery in writing courses (e.g., I monitor my learning process in writing courses; I evaluate the mastery of the knowledge or skills learned in writing courses).

Social-behavioral strategies (SBS) involve conscious efforts by individuals to adjust their writing behavior in response to the context and environment. This dimension includes two main components: feedback handling and peer learning. The former, consisting of 4 items, relates to how students approach and react to feedback from both teachers and peers with the goal of enhancing their English writing abilities (e.g., I try to improve my English writing based on teachers’ feedback). The latter, comprising 3 items, involves seeking help from peers within the learning environment, thus constituting a social interaction (e.g., I discuss with my peers to have more ideas to write).

Motivational regulation strategies (MRS) are deliberate approaches used by students to maintain or enhance their motivation when engaging in writing tasks. This dimension encompasses motivational self-talk, interest enhancement, and emotional control. Motivational self-talk, consisting of 8 items, involves self-encouragement in knowledge mastery and academic performance (e.g., I remind myself about how important it is to get good grades in writing courses). Interest enhancement, comprising 4 items, reflects students’ inclination to make learning more enjoyable (e.g., I look for ways to bring more fun to the learning of writing). Emotional control, consisting of 3 items, measures learners’ efforts to minimize distractions when completing a writing task or learning to write (e.g., I find ways to regulate my mood when I want to give up writing).

The internal consistency of the dimensions of self-regulated strategies was found to be high, as evidenced by the reliability coefficients of 0.881, 0.891, 0.817, and 0.917, which surpass the accepted threshold of 0.7 52 , 53 , thereby demonstrating the questionnaire’s reliability.

• Writing anxiety

The second language writing anxiety inventory (SLWAI) 31 was utilized to measure writing anxiety. Cheng 31 affirmed the reliability and validity of this scale. The participants were asked to answer three dimensions with 21 items in a 5-point Likert scale. Somatic anxiety dimension comprised of 7 items that referred to the physiological effects of anxiety (e.g., I feel my heart pounding when I write English compositions under time constraint). Cognitive anxiety dimension included 8 items that pertained to the mental aspects of anxiety (e.g., While writing English compositions, I feel worried and uneasy if I know they will be evaluated). Avoidance behavior dimension was composed of 6 items that indicated a tendency to avoid completing writing assignments or even retreating from such tasks altogether (e.g., I usually do my best to avoid writing English compositions). These dimensions have high internal consistency, with respective values of 0.763, 0.720, and 0.682, being higher or close to the accepted threshold of 0.7.

Writing difficulty

To evaluate the difficulty level of writing for students, we have utilized a collection of 12 items (e.g., I can’t write appropriate English sentences to express my ideas) from Wu 54 . These items are evaluated using a 5-point Likert scale from 1 “strongly disagree” to 5 “strongly agree”. The instrument as a whole exhibited a reliability coefficient of 0.873, which surpasses the accepted threshold of 0.7.

Data collection

Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in the study. Data was collected from participants of the 2022 FLTRP∙ETIC Cup English Writing Contest at a university in Eastern China. To evaluate the EFL writing performance of the participants, writing scores were used. These scores were sourced primarily from the official results released by the organizers of the contest. This approach ensures that the evaluation of each participant’s writing skills is based on a standardized and authoritative assessment, reflecting their actual performance in the competition. After the writing contest, participants were asked to complete a questionnaire, which measured self-regulated writing strategies, writing anxiety, and writing difficulty. They were also informed that their data would be kept confidential and used solely for research purposes, and were free to withdraw from the study at any time.

Data analysis

This study utilized fsQCA, a method that is suitable for exploring complex configurations of constructs 16 . fsQCA involves assessing the connections between the outcome variable (i.e., writing performance) and all possible combinations of binary states (i.e., presence or absence of its causal conditions). The software fsQCA 3.0 was used.

fsQCA entails a pre-data analysis calibration process 16 . This study utilized the direct method, employing a three-value scheme, to calibrate both causal conditions and outcome measures, which is consistent with previous research 55 , 56 . The three-value scheme prescribes the identification of three anchors for every set, encompassing the threshold for full membership, the threshold for full non-membership, and the cross-over point 16 . The calibration procedure then utilizes a logistic function to allocate values to these anchors, leading to the conversion of outcomes and causal conditions into fuzzy membership scores on the log odds of full membership by means of the fsQCA3.0 software 57 . This study used results and antecedent of 95%, 50%, and 5% quantile values. In addition, to limit “researcher degrees of freedom” and avoid “distortion of the results”, we applied the same calibration rule—the 95th, 50th, and 5th percentiles—consistently across all outcomes and causal conditions in this study 58 . Table 1 summarizes the calibration thresholds of the fuzzy sets.

Then based on calibrated fuzzy sets, we conducted a necessary condition analysis and a sufficient condition analysis. The results would be analyzed in the following section.

Ethics declarations

All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. This study was carried out in accordance with the recommendations of the Ethics Committee of Qufu Normal University. Informed consent was obtained from all subjects.

Descriptive statistics

Table  2 provided descriptive statistics of participants’ writing performance, self-regulated writing strategies, writing anxiety, and perceived writing difficulty. On average, the writing performance scored 72.24, indicating a relatively high level. However, there was a large range in scores, with the maximum being 90 and the minimum being 29. The most commonly used self-regulated writing strategies were motivational regulation strategies, followed by cognitive, metacognitive, and social-behavioral strategies. The mean scores for writing anxiety and difficulty were 2.75 and 2.81 respectively, and the highest and lowest scores for each were 5 and 1.10, and 5 and 1.17, respectively. According to West et al. 59 , skewness values less than |2| and kurtosis values less than |7| indicate a lack of significant deviation from normality. The skewness and kurtosis presented in Table  2 confirm the absence of any notable departure from normality.

Analysis of necessary conditions

Crucial to consider are necessary conditions that play a vital role in determining the outcome as their presence is an indispensable element 60 . To put it simply, without the existence of a necessary condition, the outcome is impossible to realize 61 , 62 . Employing the software of fsQCA 3.0, Table  3 illustrates an inquiry into necessary conditions for both high and low writing performance.

The presence of a necessary condition is contingent upon meeting the consistency and coverage criteria of at least 0.90 and 0.50, respectively, as stipulated by Ragin 63 and Pappas et al. 64 . As Table  3 demonstrated, none of the values met this threshold, indicating that there were no independent necessary conditions that account for high writing performance. Similarly, no single variable could be identified as a necessary condition for low writing performance. Thus, there were no necessary conditions to produce the outcome of high or low writing performance. The outcome required a combination of conditions, implying that multiple conditions should be integrated for configuration analysis.

Analysis of sufficient conditions

While a necessary condition is always a prerequisite for an outcome, a sufficient condition denotes that a particular condition or a combination of conditions is capable of leading to the outcome on its own 61 , 62 .

In order to determine the sufficient conditions for high and low writing performance, the calibrated data was integrated into a fuzzy set truth table and analyzed using fsQCA 3.0 software. The truth table encompassed all possible configurations of the conditions, with the elimination of rows containing less than 2 cases to refine the results. Moreover, configurations with a consistency of less than 0.90 and PRI (Proportional Reduction in Inconsistency) of less than 0.50 were assigned a value of “0” to ensure the sufficiency of the configurations with satisfactory quality 16 , 65 . In order for a given configuration to meet the criteria of being “sufficient”, it must possess consistency and coverage values that are ≥ 0.75 and ≥ 0.20 64 , 66 . Table  4 illustrates the sufficient solutions for modeling high and low writing performance in a diagrammatic form.

Table  4 provides a visual representation of the conditions sufficient for the outcome. The presence of a condition implies that a learner has a membership score above 0.5, as determined by the calibration procedure. In simpler terms, if a condition is present, it means that the variable value is higher than the median for the sample group. Conversely, if a condition is absent, it means that the variable value is lower than the median for the sample group. Blank spaces indicate that the conditions are not necessary for achieving the desired outcome. This information is based on the research conducted by Misangyi and Acharya 67 and Bedford et al. 68 .

Grasping configurational solutions gives a complete view of the correlation between the adoption of self-regulated writing strategies and the diverse feelings of writing anxiety and difficulty, both of which can notably affect the writing performance of EFL learners. Our configurational analysis operates on the premise that self-regulated writing strategies, as well as perceptions of writing difficulty and writing anxieties, do not operate independently of each other in influencing learners’ writing performance. Table  4 outlines the 10 configurations that resulted in either high or low writing performance. These configurations serve as evidence that there exist diverse strategic pathways that culminate in equifinal outcomes. This, in turn, corroborates the presence of numerous causal associations in the realm of writing performance. The solution coverages for high writing performance and low writing performance were 0.574 and 0.565, respectively. This indicated a high degree of explanatory power, and all configurations exhibited exceptional levels of consistency, with values of 0.880 and 0.853 in high and low writing performance, respectively. These findings suggested that the configurations were highly effective in producing the desired outcomes.

Configurations for high writing performance

It is noteworthy that six different configurations (C1–C6) have been identified as potential causal connections that lead to high writing performance (Table  4 ). The first two configurations (C1–C2) share common core conditions, which involve the implementation of cognitive strategies and low levels of writing anxiety and difficulty. This suggests that cognitive strategies are the primary factor influencing high writing performance in individuals with low levels of writing anxiety and difficult. Consequently, these configurations are categorized as a cognition-driven type, where writing performance is heavily dependent on cognitive writing strategies. An in-depth explanation of these two configurations is provided.

C1: CS*MS* ~ SBS* ~ WA * ~ WD (~ , negation (NOT); * , logical conjunction (AND)) (Table  4 ). C1 is a configuration that can lead to high writing performance, comprised of a core condition of cognitive strategies, a peripheral condition of metacognitive strategies, and an absence of social-behavioral strategies, writing anxiety, and writing difficulty. This configuration has a unique coverage rate of 0.020 and a consistency measure of 0.917, and it covers 31.3% of sets. This finding suggests that learners with low levels of writing anxiety and difficult can improve their writing ability through the use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies, even if social-behavioral strategies are not used extensively.

C2: CS* ~ SBS*MRS* ~ WA* ~ WD (Table  4 ). Configuration C2 has the potential to lead to high writing performance. It consists of a core condition of cognitive strategies, a peripheral condition of motivational regulation strategies, and an absence of social-behavioral strategies, writing anxiety, and writing difficulty. This configuration has a unique coverage rate of 0.025 and a consistency measure of 0.910, covering 31.9% of sets. It implies that learners with minimal writing anxiety and difficulty can enhance their writing performance by utilizing more cognitive and motivational regulation strategies, even if they use social-behavioral strategies less frequently.

Configurations C3–C6 are categorized as a social-behavior-driven type due to their shared core conditions centered on the incorporation of social-behavioral strategies, indicating that the adoption of these strategies is the most important factor for high writing performance. These four configurations are further explained in detail.

C3: ~ CS*SBS*MRS* ~ WA* ~ WD (Table  4 ). Configuration C3 suggests that high writing performance can be achieved without the presence of writing difficulty as core conditions and writing anxiety as peripheral conditions, but with the presence of social-behavioral and motivational strategies as core and peripheral conditions, respectively. This configuration has a unique coverage rate of 0.010, a consistency of 0.897, and covers 28.3% of sets. Therefore, it is suggested that individuals who are not troubled with writing anxiety and difficult may benefit from an increased usage of social-behavioral and motivational strategies to improve their writing performance, even if cognitive strategies are not relied upon as heavily.

C4: ~ CS* ~ MS*SBS*MRS* ~ WD (Table  4 ). Configuration C4 shows that high writing performance can be achieved with the absence of writing difficulty as a peripheral condition, and the presence of social-behavioral strategies and motivational regulation strategies as core conditions, cognitive strategies as a core condition’s absence, and metacognitive strategies as a peripheral condition’s absence. The unique coverage rate is 0.017, the consistency is 0.904, and the results cover 28.8% of sets. This indicates that when the perceived writing difficulty is low, a higher level of use of social-behavioral strategies and motivational strategies can improve learners’ writing performance, even when the use of cognitive strategies and metacognitive strategies is low.

C5: MS*SBS* ~ MRS*WA*WD (Table  4 ). Configuration C5 is the most explainable configuration of high writing performance, with the presence of metacognitive strategies and social-behavioral strategies, and the absence of motivational strategies as core conditions, the presence of perceived writing anxiety and difficulty as peripheral conditions. It boasts a high level of consistency (0.917) and unique coverage (0.071), and covers 28.3% of sets, which is indicative of its ability to explain a significant proportion of the results that lead to successful writing. Despite the challenges posed by perceived writing anxiety and difficult, learners can still strive to improve their writing performance by employing a greater number of metacognitive and social-behavioral strategies.

C6: CS*MS*SBS*MRS*WA * ~ WD (Table  4 ). Configuration C6 reveals a coverage rate of 0.060 and a consistency of 0.916, covering 30.0% of sets. This configuration consists of the absence of writing difficulty and the presence of writing anxiety as core conditions, high writing performance can be achieved by using social-behavioral strategies and motivational strategies as core conditions, and cognitive strategies and metacognitive strategies as a peripheral condition. It is possible for learners to achieve a high level of writing performance even if they experience a high degree of writing anxiety, as demonstrated by the evidence from C6. This can be accomplished through the implementation of cognitive, metacognitive, social-behavioral, and motivational strategies.

Configurations for low writing performance

Table  4 demonstrates that four distinct configurations, C7–C10, exhibit low writing performance. These configurations share a core condition of high writing anxiety, as well as a lack of self-regulated writing strategies. This suggests that the primary cause of the low writing performance is the presence of heightened writing anxiety and the absence of certain writing strategies. Consequently, these four configurations can be classified as an anxiety-troubled type. Further details of these configurations are provided.

C7: ~ CS* ~ MS* ~ SBS* ~ MRS *WA (Table  4 ). C7 is a configuration with higher levels of writing anxiety, lower level of use of cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, social-behavioral strategies, and motivational strategies. The unique coverage is 0.046, the consistency is 0.893, and it covers 47.3% of sets. This indicates that such a configuration can result in low writing performance among learners.

C8: ~ CS* ~ MS* ~ MRS *WA*WD (Table  4 ). C8 indicates that a diminished use of cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational strategies can negatively impact writing performance in learners who experience high levels of writing anxiety and difficult. This conclusion is supported by a unique coverage of 0.029 and a consistency of 0.885. And it covers 45.6% of sets.

C9: ~ CS* ~ MS* ~ SBS* WA*WD (Table  4 ). C9 highlights that when dealing with learners who possess a high level of writing anxiety and difficult, a low usage of cognitive, metacognitive, and social-behavioral strategies may result in poor writing performance. The unique coverage rate is recorded at 0.021, the consistency stands at 0.891, and it covers 44.8% of sets.

C10: MS* ~ SBS* ~ MRS *WA*WD (Table  4 ). C10 shows that in the context of individuals who exhibit high level of perceived writing anxiety and difficulty, a reduced employment of social-behavioral and motivational strategies can result in low writing performance, despite a high level of utilization of metacognitive strategies. This is indicated by a unique coverage rate of 0.043 and a consistency score of 0.913. And it covers 32.0% of sets.

Discussion and implications

Table  4 presents configurations contingent upon the attributes of EFL learners, including their utilization of self-regulated writing strategies, writing anxieties, and perception of writing difficulties. These elements have significant impacts on writing performance, with configurations C1–C6 indicating high writing performance, and configurations C7–C10 indicating low writing performance. Three general types of configurations were identified: cognition-driven, social-behavior-driven, and anxiety-troubled.

If EFL learners possess a high level of cognitive and metacognitive strategies, along with low levels of writing anxiety and difficult, as per configuration C1, they are likely to achieve high writing performance. The employment of social-behavior strategies is not crucial for achieving such performance, and the presence of motivational strategies does not significantly affect the outcome. According to configuration C2, EFL learners can attain high writing performance if they possess a wealth of cognitive and motivational strategies, and concurrently experience a low degree of perceived writing anxiety and difficulty. The possession of social-behavioral strategies is not a fundamental requirement for high writing performance, and metacognitive strategies are inconsequential.

The first two configurations (C1–C2) share common core conditions, which involve the implementation of cognitive strategies and low levels of writing anxiety and difficulty, which are categorized as the cognition-driven type, where writing performance is heavily dependent on cognitive writing strategies. This type partially aligns with Teng and Zhang 8 , which indicate that while motivational regulation strategies directly and indirectly affect EFL students’ writing performance and correlate significantly with their use of cognitive, metacognitive, and social behavior strategies, only cognitive and metacognitive strategies were significant mediators.

C3 shows that if EFL learners do not experience high level of writing anxiety or writing difficulty, it is probable that they can achieve high writing performance by utilizing cognitive strategies and metacognitive strategies, in addition to social-behavioral strategies and motivational strategies. C4 suggests that high writing performance can be realized by mitigating the writing difficulty and implementing social-behavioral and motivational writing strategies, even if cognitive and metacognitive strategies are not employed. In accordance with C5, it is possible for EFL learners to achieve high writing performance despite lacking in cognitive strategies and regardless of their possession of metacognitive strategies. This can be achieved through the possession of more social-behavioral strategies and motivational strategies, coupled with low levels of perceived writing anxiety and difficulty. According to the configuration C6, it is possible for EFL learners to achieve high levels of writing performance despite lacking in cognitive strategies and metacognitive strategies, provided that they possess an abundance of social-behavioral strategies and motivational strategies, and also maintain low levels of perceived writing difficulty. Furthermore, this outcome is not influenced by their level of writing anxiety.

Configurations C3–C6 are categorized as a social-behavior-driven type due to their shared core conditions centered on the incorporation of social-behavioral strategies. This finding aligns with the work Mohseniasl 69 , who highlights the role of explicit writing strategy instruction in alleviating writing difficulties, supporting our observation that focusing on specific types of writing strategies, such as social-behavioral and motivational, can lead to improved writing outcomes.

In the case of low writing performance, as per C7, EFL learners who exhibit high levels of writing anxiety and perceived writing difficulty are likely to experience a decline in writing performance if they lack cognitive strategies and metacognitive strategies and social-behavioral strategies, regardless of their possession of additional motivational strategies. As per C8, it is evident that EFL learners who possess high writing anxiety and perceived writing difficulty may face challenges in achieving high writing performance if they lack sufficient social-behavioral strategies and motivational strategies. This is irrespective of whether they possess more metacognitive strategies and regardless of whether they have more cognitive strategies or not. C9 posits that in the event that EFL learners exhibit high levels of anxiety when writing, their writing performance may suffer if they lack social-behavioral strategies and cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, and motivational strategies. Whether or not they experience significant writing difficulty is of no consequence. C10 posits that EFL learners who exhibit high levels of writing anxiety and perceived writing difficulty, may experience diminished writing performance if they do not possess the necessary cognitive strategies as well as metacognitive strategies and motivational strategies. Notably, the presence of social-behavioral strategies is not a key determinant of this outcome.

C7-C10, exhibit low writing performance. These configurations share a core condition of high writing anxiety and can be classified as an anxiety-troubled type. This finding is partially in line with Khosravi et al. 70 , who identified a significant negative relationship between writing anxiety and EFL learners’ writing performance, emphasizing the detrimental impact of high anxiety levels on writing.

This study provides valuable insights into the various self-regulated writing strategies that EFL learners can adopt to improve their L2 writing performance, depending on their degree of writing anxiety and difficult. The results are of great significance to the field of pedagogy, as they demonstrate the configurational impacts of writing strategies, writing anxiety, and writing difficulty on writing performance. Consequently, instructors of EFL writing classes can introduce tailored interventions to enhance learners’ writing performance. Additionally, this study proposes an alternative approach to promote the use of writing strategies, taking into account individual characteristics such as perceptions of writing anxiety and writing difficulty.

This study presents a novel approach to evaluating the potential impact of self-regulated writing strategies on writing performance of Chinese EFL learners. The research acknowledges influence of self-regulated writing strategies, writing anxiety and perceived writing difficulty on writing performance. To evaluate the role of these factors and their collective impact, a fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) is used. The results indicate that diverse configurations can lead to either high or low writing performance. Specifically, two configurations fall under the cognition-driven type, which highlights the importance of cognitive writing strategies in high writing performance, while four configurations of the social-behavior-driven type emphasize the significance of social-behavioral writing strategies in high writing performance. On the other hand, it can be inferred that a lack of writing strategies coupled with writing anxiety may result in low writing performance, as exemplified by the four instances of the anxiety-troubled configuration. The above configurations provide educators and instructors with valuable insights on how to provide tailored guidance or corrective measures that can enhance writing performance of EFL learners, depending on the particular configuration, which includes both core and peripheral conditions.

This study provides valuable insights; however, its limitations cannot be ignored. To begin with, the participants were selected in one university, thus, the results cannot be generalized to a wider population. Instead, they can contribute to a better comprehension of the intricate relationships between self-regulated writing strategies, writing anxiety, writing difficulty, and writing performance. Additionally, most data in this study were collected from self-report questionnaires. It’s important to recognize that self-reports, while insightful, can be subject to social desirability bias. This occurs when respondents modify their answers to align with perceived social expectations, potentially skewing the results. To enhance the validity of future research, a more diverse methodological approach is recommended. Integrating objective assessment tools, such as direct behavioral observations or technology-assisted data collection like keystroke analysis, could complement self-reported data. These methods would not only offset the limitations of self-reports but also provide a richer, deeper understanding of the writing process in L2 learners. Lastly, it is essential to note that this study only focused on writing strategies, writing anxiety, and writing difficulty, while writing is a multifaceted and complex process that involves a range of other factors that could affect writing performance. Future research endeavors should consider a broader range of variables to examine the reasons for the variation in writing performance with different combinations of conditions.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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This study was supported by Social Science Planning Research Project of Shandong Province (Grant No. 23CSDJ24).

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Cunying Fan conceptualised the study, analyzed the data, and wrote the main manuscript text. Juan Wang conceptualised the study, conducted the survey, and revised the manuscript. Both authors reviewed the manuscript.

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Appendix 1: Brief introduction of FLTRP·ETIC Cup English Writing Contest

The FLTRP·ETIC Cup English Writing Contest, initiated in 2013, has become a significant event in the field of English language teaching in China. The contest’s rigorously organized and executed processes ensure objective and fair evaluation, affirming its standardization and effectiveness. The contest’s topics and evaluation criteria, designed by a team of professionals, aim to comprehensively assess students’ English writing skills. More information about the FLTRP·ETIC Cup English Writing Contest can be found at https://uchallenge.unipus.cn/ .

Appendix 2: Brief introduction of 2022 FLTRP·ETIC Cup English Writing Contest

The preliminary content of the 2022 FLTRP·ETIC Cup English Writing Contest requires writing one argumentative essay (about 500 words) and one explanatory essay (300–500 words), with a total writing time of 120 min and a full score of 100. The argumentative essay, titled Big Data and Freedom of Choice, guides participants to discuss whether massive information truly provides abundant choices for people’s lives. The expository essay requires participants to choose one of the twenty-four solar terms, introducing its name, meaning, related customs, and  so on.

Appendix 3: Scoring scheme of writing tasks

Argumentative writing.

Content/Ideas (40%)

Writing effectively addresses the topic and the task.

Writing presents an insightful position on the issue.

The position is strongly and substantially supported or argued.

Organization/Development (30%)

Writing is well-organized and well-developed, using appropriate rhetorical devices (e.g. exemplifications, classification, analysis, comparison/contrast, etc.) to support the thesis or to illustrate ideas.

Writing displays coherence, progression, consistency and unity.

Textual elements are well-connected through explicit logical and/or linguistic transitions.

Language (30%)

Spelling is accurate.

Writing displays consistent facility in use of language.

Writing demonstrates appropriate register, syntactic variety, and effective use of vocabulary.

Expository writing

Writing presents a clear thesis.

Writing maintains a formal style and an objective tone.

Writing is well-organized and well-developed, using appropriate development patterns (e.g., definition, illustration, casual analysis, process analysis, classification, comparison/contrast, etc.) to support the thesis or to illustrate ideas.

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Fan, C., Wang, J. Configurational impact of self-regulated writing strategy, writing anxiety, and perceived writing difficulty on EFL writing performance: an fsQCA approach. Sci Rep 14 , 11125 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-61537-x

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Applied Optics

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Autofocusing of laser lithography through the crosshair projection method

Wei Wei, Jingsong Wei, Tianyu Gao, and Xiaozhong Xu

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Wei Wei, 1, 2 Jingsong Wei, 2, * Tianyu Gao, 2 and Xiaozhong Xu 2

1 School of Microelectronics, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China

2 Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201800, China

* Corresponding author: [email protected]

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• Imaging Systems, Image Processing, and Displays
• Image metrics
• Imaging systems
• Interference filters
• Lithography
• Optical systems
• Systems design
• Original Manuscript: March 5, 2024
• Revised Manuscript: April 24, 2024
• Manuscript Accepted: April 25, 2024
• Published: May 13, 2024
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• Data Availability
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In laser direct writing lithography, there is not any image information from the sample surface, which makes it difficult to find the position of the focal plane. To overcome the problem, an autofocusing through the crosshair projection method is proposed in this work. The crosshair on the reticle is inserted into the lighting path and imaged onto the sample surface. The addition of the crosshair projection increases the image information from the sample surface, meeting the requirement for the image information in focusing and improving the focusing environment. Furthermore, this work presents what we believe to be a new division of the focusing curve based on the range of the perpendicular feature extracted from the crosshair projection during the focusing process. The perpendicular feature can be extracted from the crosshair projection in the focusing zone but not in the flat zone. Compared with the traditional division, this new division enables the use of the perpendicular feature to directly determine the zone of the current sample position and to find the focusing zone during the focusing process. This can completely filter out the interference of local fluctuations in the flat zone, greatly facilitating the sample focusing. The autofocusing process was designed based on this division, and experiments were carried out accordingly. The focusing accuracy is about 0.15 µm, which is in the range of the depth of focus of the optical system. The results show that the proposed method provides a good solution to achieve accurate focusing based on the crosshair projection image from the sample surface in laser lithography.

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Sebastian Schlangen, Maximilian Ihme, Maik Rahlves, and Bernhard Roth Appl. Opt. 55 (8) 1863-1870 (2016)

Zhongyang Wang, Hongwei Ma, Yuan Chen, and Dengxue Liu J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 41 (6) 976-987 (2024)

Jie Cao, Yang Cheng, Peng Wang, Kaiyu Zhang, Yuqing Xiao, Kun Li, Yuxin Peng, and Qun Hao Appl. Opt. 56 (22) 6222-6229 (2017)

Zhihao Wang, Xin Zhang, Xindong Chen, Liang Miao, Ke Kang, and Chenggang Mo Opt. Express 32 (4) 4902-4915 (2024)

Caiwei Li, Kehan Liu, Xiaoguang Guo, Yinghao Xiao, Yingjun Zhang, and Zhen-Li Huang Biomed. Opt. Express 15 (4) 2697-2707 (2024)

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Data underlying the results presented in this paper are not publicly available at this time but may be obtained from the authors upon reasonable request.

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Figures (13)

Equations (6).

Gisele Bennett, Editor-in-Chief

Effect of Crosshair Projection Increasing the Image Information from the Original Sample Surface

Focusing Results of 10 Focusing Experiments

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Field error.

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