variation order thesis

Causes, effects and possible solutions of variation order in project performance

This thesis deals with the variation order that occurs in every construction project and how it affects the performance of the projects itself. Variation order is defined as the additions, omissions, alterations and substitution in terms of quality, quantity and schedule of works. Malaysia as a developing country is overgrown with various type of construction project here and there and the occurence of variation order in each of this project is inevitable. So, the objective of this thesis is to identify the causes of variation order in construction project, to investigate the impact of variation orders and to determine the proactive measure regarding the existence of the variation order. The scope of the study is on any ongoing construction projects in Kuantan area to identify the variation order that may occurs in each and every projects. In order to achieved the objective stated, a questionnaire is distributed to three parties involve in the construction area ; the client, consultant and contractor. Questionnaire is given according to how many projects that is still progressing handled by them. The questionnaire consists of demographic, causes of variation order, effects of variation order and the possible solution on how to avoid variation order. After 100 questionnaire is distributed and the result is tabulated, it is known that the main cause of variation order is the change of plan or scope is the main reason why variation order occurs in those construction project. It is known that the main effect of the occurence of variation order is the increase in the project cost. There will be an overrun in the cost of the project. The best possible solution to avoids variation order is to have a very good and proactive communication between all parties (the clients, contractors and consultants) throughout the construction of the project from start to finish. In a nutshell, it is known that the client, contractor and also the consultant all played a vital and important role in order to have a zero variation order or at least to minimize the variation order itself in each of the projects that are handled by them. Variation order should be taken as a serious matter as it will affects the project performances and also the growth of development in Malaysia in a long term period of time.

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Significant Causes and Effects of Variation Orders in Construction Projects

Variation Order (VO) is a common phenomenon in construction projects. It involves an amendment of the original scope of work as in the contract. VO is caused from various factors. Variations often cause disputes and dissatisfactions among the parties involved in construction projects. Thus, it is very important to control VOs in a construction project. For this, the first step is to uncover and understand the causes and effects of VO. Hence, the aim of this study is to determine the significant causes and effects of VO in construction projects. Data collection involved the survey with a structured questionnaire consisting of 18 causes and 9 effects of variation orders identified through comprehensive literature review. Survey was carried out among client representatives, consultants and contractors involved in handling projects of Malaysian Public Works Department (PWD) known as Jabatan Kerja Raya Malaysia (JKR). A total of 101 completed questionnaire sets were collected against 200 questionnaires distributed among the practitioners. Collected questionnaires were analyzed with statistical software package SPSS and Average Index formula. The results of the study showed that in Malaysia’s JKR projects often variation orders are occurred; these VO’s are majorly caused because of unavailability of equipment, poor workmanship and design complexity. While most significant effects of VO on the projects are increased project cost, delay in completion and logistic delays. Early participation of professionals may be beneficial in reducing the occurrence of variations. Also, improved design and avoiding frequent design changes will be very effective in controlling the problem of variations.

Related Papers

Aftab Hameed Memon

Construction projects are often facing a severe problem of variations. The variations are caused by numerous factors. These variations have significant effect on the project performance especially the quality of the works. This paper has investigated the probability of occurrence of various factors of variations and the relative responsible party causing this occurrence of factors. Also, level of significance for each factor in affecting the quality of the projects is assessed. Data collection for this study involved survey using questionnaire with client, consultant and contractors. Statistical analysis of all 101 completed questionnaire received against 200 distributed forms was carried out with SPSS software package and average index method. Finding of the study highlighted that the top 5 factors which are most commonly occurred in construction projects are unavailability of equipments, poor workmanship, design complexity, change of schedule and impediment to prompt decision making process. Consultants are found as responsible for most of the factors i.e. 12 factors out of 18 investigated factors. Poor workmanship, changes in specification, financial difficulties, inadequate working drawing details and change in design are rated as the top 5 significant factors in affecting quality of the projects. It is recommended that changes in specification and design be minimized; effective financial management be adopted to reduce variations and improve the quality of the projects.

Tadesse Ayalew

MATEC Web of Conferences

Noraziah Mohammad

Tewodros Zewdu

Andualem Endris

ISRN Construction Engineering

Rangika Halwatura

Construction industry continues to be a driving force in the growth of the nation’s socio-economic development. Hence, construction industry is growing rapidly. Unfortunately, many of the construction projects fail in achieving desired performance specifically performance of time and cost as targeted. This is resulted due to various reasons. One of the reasons for this failure is variation order. Variation Order (VO) in the construction industry has become one of the common and serious issues. Undoubtedly, frequent occurrence of variations may decelerate the growth of the economy. Thus, it is very indispensable to discover and review the factors causing variation orders. Therefore, this study is focusing on identifying various causes of the variation order and assesses their effect on time and cost. This was done through comprehensive quantitative data collection method using questionnaire survey. The questionnaires were distributed to clients, consultants and contractors involved in the construction industry. The factors were categorized in groups by analyzing gathered data with multivariate statistical method of Factor Analysis. Factor analysis was run with SPSS software for Principal Component Analysis (PCA) test. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO), the measure of sampling adequacy was found as 0.834 at significance level of 0.000, which showed that the data was adequate for further analysis. It resulted in categorizing data into 4 components which were used to calculate Average Index (AI) in evaluating the severity of various factors in affecting time and cost performance. Results showed that severe VO factors affecting time performance are; change in schedule, change of scope, change in design, financial problem and lack of strategic planning. Severe factors in affecting cost performance were change of schedule, financial problem, inadequate working drawing detail, change in specification, and financial difficulties. It is recommended that effective financial management and careful design can be very useful in reducing variation orders and hence project performance can be improved.

Jawad Alsuliman

IJERA Journal

Variations or changes to construction plans have been identified as a major problem in construction projects. Variations have adverse impact on project delivery. Effective management of variations, therefore, is critical to accomplishing project objectives; and this commences with identifying the sources and causes of variations. This paper presents the results of a study of the origins and causes of variation orders in building projects within the Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN): Ministries, Departments, and Agencies (MDGs). Extensive review of relevant literature has been provided. The methodology adopted involved the use of structured questionnaires administered on the MDGs ensuring a fair representation of the geo-political zones of the country. Use was made of field assistants to facilitate the administration of questionnaires. An ex-post facto research design was also employed in the data gathering. Analysis of data was done using descriptive and inferential statistics. The results reveal that variation orders are common in building projects. The client was shown to be the most frequently involved origin agent of variation orders as a result of inadequate or unclear brief, and change in plan or scope. The study concludes with recommendations that project planning; and engagement of project officers are effective means of formulating clear project briefs in order to minimize variation orders and enhance project performance.

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What is a Variation Order? (With Templates and Examples)

Construction projects are known for their dynamic nature, and changes, unfortunately, are common on both large and small-scale contracts. These changes can arise due to various factors, such as design refinements, unforeseen conditions, or even evolving client requirements. These modifications are usually managed through a contractual instrument called a variation order.

A Variation Order is an official document that outlines modifications or adjustments to a project’s original scope of work. Variation orders can cover various aspects, including changes in design specifications, materials, quantities, timelines, or any other contractual terms.

In this article, we further discuss this topic and understand what causes them, the risks associated with variation orders, ways to avoid and manage them, and provide a variation order template for your reference – Let’s dive in!

What is Variation Order in a Construction Contract?

A variation order in a construction contract refers to a formal written instruction issued by the client or the project owner to make changes to the original scope of work. They are important for the following reasons:

Ensure Clarity and Keep Records: Variation orders must provide clear documentation of changes, reducing the risk of future disputes and misunderstandings by both parties. It is essential to formalize variation orders in writing to protect both the project owner and the contractor. As a best practice, always instruct or request variation orders in written form.
Contractual Compliance: Construction contracts typically include mechanisms for managing variations. You must follow these mechanisms to ensure contractual compliance and protect your interests under the agreement
Ch ange Control: Variation orders establish a structured process for managing contract alterations, ensuring clear traceability of all modifications. This is particularly important when multiple interfacing contractors are involved in one project. For example, you will need to understand how a change for a builder will impact the lift installation and minimize potential conflicts.
Cost and Time Management: Variation orders should clearly state the associated costs and timelines for changes. This enables informed decision-making.

What causes a Variation Order in a Construction Contract?

Various factors can trigger variation orders in construction contracts, such as design update, unforeseen conditions, change of requirements by the owner, scope expansion or reduction, and project’s program updates.

The table below summarises some common causes that lead to agreement amendments, a brief description, and the respective example.

Author’s Note: We note there are other several issues that can lead to change orders in construction agreements, such as changes in regulations or law, site access issues, weather conditions, and value engineering.

What are the risks associated with Variation Orders in a Contract?

Construction projects are inherently dynamic, and changes during their execution are inevitable. Albeit sometimes required and beneficial for the final desired product, variation orders might create significant and unexpected risks to your project, such as:

Cost Overruns: Changes in scope can lead to additional costs, including revised materials, labour, and equipment requirements,
Schedule Delays: Variation orders may disrupt the project’s planned timeline, leading to delays in completion due to additional work or rescheduling requirements.
Contractual Disputes: Inadequate documentation or unclear terms in variation orders can result in contractual conflicts between parties, leading to disputes and potential legal consequences.
Impacts on Quality: Changes to the original scope may introduce risks to the project’s quality if not adequately managed.
Miscommunication and Coordination Issues: Lack of clear communication and coordination among the relevant parties may result in errors, rework, and coordination challenges among different trades or contractors.
Procurement and Supply Chain Challenges: Variation orders may require adjustments to procurement strategies, leading to potential disruptions in the supply chain and difficulties in securing required materials or services. This can be specifically challenging for remote jobs or products with a long lead time.
Productivity Loss: Changes to the scope of work can affect labour productivity, as workers must adapt to new requirements, potentially impacting overall project efficiency.
Health and Safety Risks: Variation orders may introduce additional health and safety considerations, requiring updated risk assessments and proper implementation of safety measures.

How to Avoid Variation Orders in Construction Contracts?

As detailed above, variation orders can introduce complexities and potential risks to construction projects. So, how to avoid them? Use the following measures:

Thorough Project Planning
Clear and Comprehensive Contracts
Effective Communication
Detailed Documentation
Regular Project Monitoring
Collaborative approach
Create and maintain an effective change management procedure
Implement a robust risk management framework

Author’s Note: Another key aspect of mitigating alterations and amendments in your construction contract is ensuring that the implemented agreement model is adequate.

Each contracting approach (Construction Only, Alliance Contracting , D&C, EPC , etc.) comes with a different risk profile, and you should consider what is the most suitable for the project’s characteristics. If you need some advice, please do not hesitate to contact us (click here)

Variation Order - Template

The template below is generic and very simple, and should be used as a reference only . We strongly recommend taking some specific advice to ensure your rights are reserved and protected.

We offer specialised commercial and contractual advice, and do not hesitate to contact us.

VO - Template

VARIATION ORDER #22

Subject: Variation Order #22 – Additional Excavation Around Piles

Dear Contractor,

The Owner refers to the agreement executed on [date] between the Owner and the Contractor for the Construction of a Warehouse.

Pursuant to clause 10.3, the Owner hereby instructs the Contractor to proceed with the following Variation Order.

Variation Scope:

The Contractor is directed to undertake additional excavation around piles 1, 2 and 3 as per instructions attached to this notice (include attachment)

Variation Cost:

The costs associated with this Variation Order are $1,000.00

Program Impacts:

The Owner understands there are no time impacts associated with this Variation Order.

Should the Contractor have any concerns or queries regarding this Variation Order, please do not hesitate to contact us immediately to discuss and clarify.

Owner’s Representative.

What is the difference between a variation order and a claim?

A variation order is a formal change to the original scope of work agreed upon by the parties involved . In contrast, a claim refers to a request for compensation or resolution due to a dispute or disagreement.

Example: A variation claim could arise when unforeseen ground conditions are encountered during excavation (soil loading capacity is lower than expected), requiring additional foundation work and causing delays.

The contractor can submit a variation claim to the owner, outlining the additional costs and time required to address the unexpected ground conditions. The owner needs to review and check Contractor’s entitlement.

Suggested Article: What is a Variation Claim or Variation Request? (And How to Submit one!)

What is the difference between a variation order and a change order?

Variation and change orders are often used interchangeably, and the nomenclature and terminology will vary according to the contract definitions. Some other common terms are:

Variation Order
Change Order
Scope Change
Contract amendment
Contract adjustment
Project Alteration
Construction Variation

Do not hesitate to contact us (click here) for specialised advice in construction contracts .

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Variation theory: A theory of learning and a useful theoretical framework for chemical education research

Thomas J. Bussey a , MaryKay Orgill * a and Kent J. Crippen b a University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Department of Chemistry, 4505 S. Maryland Parkway, Box 4003, Las Vegas, NV 89154-4003, USA. E-mail: [email protected] ; Tel: +1 702-895-3580 b University of Florida, School of Teaching and Learning, 2423 Norman Hall, PO Box 117048, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA

First published on 11th December 2012

Instructors are constantly baffled by the fact that two students who are sitting in the same class, who have access to the same materials, can come to understand a particular chemistry concept differently. Variation theory offers a theoretical framework from which to explore possible variations in experience and the resulting differences in learning and understanding. According to variation theory, there are a limited number of features of a given phenomenon to which we can pay attention at any given time. Our experience of that phenomenon depends on the specific features to which we direct our attention. Two individuals who experience the same phenomenon may focus on different features and, thus, come to understand the phenomenon differently. The purpose of this article is to present variation theory as (1) a useful way for instructors to think about student learning and (2) a potentially powerful theoretical framework from which to conduct chemical education research.

Introduction

While those two students are both physically present during the same event, their experiences—or, more accurately, their perceptions—of that event will be shaped by a huge number of factors. Any phenomenon will present an individual with innumerable features to which they could attend. One cannot possibly attend to all of them at the same time ( van Merriënboer and Sweller, 2005 ); so the question then becomes, to which features does that person pay attention? The limited number of features to which one attends and the meaning one ascribes to those features will determine an individual's perception of a given event ( Marton and Booth, 1997 ).

If we want people to experience a phenomenon in a particular way, then we need them to attend to certain critical features of that phenomenon. In the chemistry classroom, if we want our students to come to a shared understanding of a given chemical concept, we must then cue them to focus on certain critical features of that concept. Variation theory not only provides a useful way to explain the differences in students' understanding of a particular concept, but also a theoretical perspective from which qualitative educational research studies can be designed in order to identify the differences between what instructors intend for their students to learn about a particular concept and what their students actually learn about that concept.

Variation theory, sometimes referred to as “new phenomenography,” reflects a shift within the phenomenographic research tradition that occurred in the 1990s ( Orgill, 2012 ). During that time period, phenomenography was criticized as being a purely descriptive and atheoretical framework. In other words, although phenomenography and its methods could be used to identify and describe the range of experiences a particular group of people had with a given phenomenon, it could not explain why that variation in experience existed. Variation theory can be seen as a more theoretical extension of phenomenography, in that it attempts to explain how people—particularly students—can experience the same phenomenon differently and how that knowledge can be used to improve classroom teaching and learning ( Tan, 2009 ).

Aims of variation theory

While there are many potential examples of variation in the teaching and learning of chemistry—some of which we will discuss later in this article—we will begin with a more commonplace example. As noted by Orgill (2012) , in order to learn the concept of a ripe banana, one can focus on many features. One such critical feature associated with ripeness is the color of the banana ( Fig. 1 ).

In order to understand how the feature yellow relates to the concept of ripe banana , one must also experience under-ripe, green bananas as well as over-ripe, brown bananas. This experience of variation in the critical feature of banana color allows the individual to create meaning related to the concept of banana ripeness. It should be further noted, that the gradation of color, from green to yellow to brown, represents a specific continuum in variation within which future experiences will be judged. As such, a blue banana would have no meaning with regards to the concept of banana ripeness within this context.

Banana color is by no means the only critical feature related to banana ripeness. Taste, for example, would be another important feature for one to experience in order to develop a deeper understanding of the concept of banana ripeness. Similarly, one could experience variation in banana size; however, the feature of size is not necessarily related to the concept of banana ripeness. In this way, an individual must filter out some features from others in order to create a meaningful conception. Thus, the individual's perceptions of certain critical features based on experienced variation within and between features allows that individual to construct a mental model of a given concept that is unique to that individual. The overall aim of variation theory is to explain differences in learning and understanding based on the experience of variation in these critical features.

Key concepts of variation theory

An individual's experience of a given phenomenon depends on the particular set of features to which they attend. In order to experience a phenomenon in a particular way, an individual discerns and assigns meaning to certain aspects of that phenomenon. “The aspects of the phenomenon and the relationships between them that are discerned and simultaneously present in the individual's focal awareness define the individual's way of experiencing the phenomenon” ( Marton and Booth, 1997, p.101 ).

For example, as chemical educators, it is our goal to help our students construct a shared (and, hopefully, scientific) understanding of a given concept. To do so, we need them to experience a given learning environment and the material presented in that environment in a particular way, i.e. , we need them to notice, recognize the importance of, and make meaning from certain critical features of the concept to be learned (referred to as the object of learning in variation theory). Noticing critical features of a given phenomenon, however, is not a simple process. Variation theory describes this noticing as being related to several key processes and concepts that underlie learning, including awareness , discernment , and simultaneity .

In experiencing a phenomenon, we are unable to be aware of all aspects of the phenomenon. Instead, we are only able to attend to certain aspects of the phenomenon. Marton and Booth (1997) note that “[i]f we consider an individual at any instant, he or she is aware of […] certain aspects of reality focally while other things have receded to the background” (p. 108). So which features do we notice and which fade into the background? Experiencing variation in a particular feature may serve to call attention to that feature, thereby allowing it to be noticed while other features may fade into the background.

The particular features brought into focal awareness form the basis of the subsequent construction of knowledge for that experience ( Marton and Booth, 1997 ). “[Q]ualitatively different ways of experiencing something can be understood in terms of differences in the structure and organization of awareness at a particular moment” ( Marton and Booth, 1997, p. 100 ). To readdress the opening question of this article, two students may be sitting in the same classroom at the same time and exposed to the same instructional materials and pedagogies; however, each individual student may attend to different features of the learning event and, thus, come away with a different experience and understanding of that phenomenon. The educational challenge lies in directing students to focus on those aspects deemed critical for experiencing the learning event in a particular manner and doing so in a way that does not excessively tax working memory; in the case of science education, this manner would be the scientifically accepted conception of a given topic.

Discernment

Simultaneity.

Based on experienced variation and prior knowledge, several aspects of a given phenomenon may be discerned ( Marton and Tsui, 2004 ). However, cognitive load limits our ability for simultaneous focal awareness. Thus, again, “the aspects of the phenomenon and the relationships between them that are discerned and simultaneously present in the individual's focal awareness define the individual's way of experiencing the phenomenon” ( Marton and Booth, 1997, p. 101 ).

The object of learning

Variation theory allows us, as chemistry education researchers, to examine the learning event—and the object of learning—from three different perspectives by asking the following research questions: (1) according to instructors, what should students learn about a particular object of learning?, (2) what is possible for students to learn about a particular object of learning (based on what they experience during a learning event)?, and (3) what did students actually learn about a particular object of learning? Variation theory examines and triangulates the object of learning from these three different perspectives, each of which will be described below: the intended object of learning , the enacted object of learning , and the lived object of learning .

A learning event involves the interaction of two spheres of knowledge and experience, the teacher and the student ( Fig. 2 ). The teacher facilitates learning and may represent a specific person in the case of a formalized classroom environment or more of an abstraction of expert thought and intention in the case of informal or non-formal learning environments. In all cases, the teacher enters the learning event with some intention for student learning. Similarly, the student represents any individual who enters the learning event in a position to experience and perceive an object of learning and develop a new or altered conception of that object. The overlap in these spheres represents not a shared experience of the learning event but rather the interaction between the teacher and student during that event. This constitutes a space within which learning can take place. This region of overlap is known, appropriately, in variation theory as the space of learning .

Knowledge of all three aspects of an object of learning can be particularly useful to instructors who wish to improve their instructional materials or practices ( e.g. , Marton and Tsui, 2004 ). Comparisons between the intended and lived objects of learning can be used to identify differences between what instructors hope students will learn and what students actually learn about a given concept. A comparison between the intended, enacted and lived objects of learning can illuminate why students are not learning what their instructor wanted them to learn about a given concept, since the enacted object of learning—and not the instructor's intentions—creates possibilities for learning. The results of a study informed by variation theory, taken as a whole, can ultimately be used by instructors to revise or design instructional materials and experiences that can be integrated or implemented into a new learning event (a new enacted object of learning) that will ideally lead to their students' developing a desired understanding of a particular object of learning (a new lived object of learning from that future learning event). Similarly, an examination of both the enacted and lived objects of learning may influence an instructor's intended object of learning for a future learning event. In Fig. 2 , we have chosen to represent the fact that each object of learning potentially influences the other objects of learning in a future learning event as bidirectional arrows between those objects of learning.

Critical features

While educators and educational researchers may deem certain features as critical for developing correct understanding about a given phenomenon, it is possible that those critical features will not be noticed by students or that students will notice some features that the instructors do not deem to be critical. Thus, students will come to a unique understanding of a learning event based on the features, critical or otherwise, to which they discern and hold in their focal awareness. If we, as educators, can get our students to attend to certain critical features of the object of learning, we can help our students construct a more directed understanding of a given object of learning. Variation theory suggests that students' awareness can be focused on these critical features when they are allowed to experience variation in those features.

Significant patterns of variation

“Typically, we select a few details to which we attend” ( Gerow and Bordens, 2000, p. 119 ). The question then becomes, which details are salient? In order to discern a particular feature from the cacophony of background information, that feature must be presented as different or varied from the background. Thus “[a]ccording to variation theory, a phenomenon and/or its critical features are made visible in a teaching context through variation” ( Orgill, 2012, p. 3392 ). Contrast , generalization , separation , and fusion have been defined by Marton and colleagues ( e.g. , Marton and Pang, 2006 ; Marton and Tsui, 2004 ) as four significant patterns of variation ( Guo et al. , 2012 ; Orgill, 2012 ).

Contrast allows the individual to compare an object of learning or a feature of that object with something it is not. This allows the individual to create meaning for an object or feature by defining it against things that are different from it. As a child, we learn the concept of dog not simply by recognizing dogs but also by noting that they are not cats, or hamsters, or any number of other childhood pets. Similarly, in a chemistry class, a student could develop a concept of an acid by noticing that when the acid is added to a solution containing phenolphthalein , the resulting solution is colorless while the solution that results when a base is added to the same phenolphthalein solution turns pink. The contrast between the color changes of the two solutions serves to call a student's attention to the fact that the acid and base solutions behave differently. Once the student notices the difference in the color of the two solutions, he or she could construct meaning for the concept of acid using both their prior knowledge and other information provided during the learning event. For example, students could add “acid solutions do not turn pink when phenolphthalein is added to them” to their concept of acid based on this described experience of contrast . Their understanding of why acid solutions do not turn pink when phenolphthalein is added to them may then develop during future learning events. It is worth noting that while the contrast between color changes does not ensure that a student will interpret the phenomenon in a scientifically accurate manner, it does serve to draw student's attention, creating the possibility that learning could occur. Ideally, then, the contrast in the behavior of the acid/ phenolphthalein and base/ phenolphthalein solutions will allow a student to develop their concept of acid as they learn that acids do not behave like bases.

Generalization allows the individual to compare similar instances of the object of learning. “To fully understand an object of learning, the learner must experience many other examples to generalize the meaning” ( Guo et al. , 2012 ). Generalizing provides learners experiences that allow them to distinguish between essential and irrelevant features. With regard to the concept of dog , a child might experience large dogs, small dogs, medium sized dogs, brown dogs, grey dogs, multicolored dogs, nice dogs, mean dogs, etc. , all of which are generalized to form the child's concept of dog. In the chemistry class, a student might experience strong acids, weak acids, Arrhenius acids, Bronsted–Lowry acids, Lewis acids, etc. By experiencing the same object of learning or feature of an object of learning in multiple contexts, the student is able to develop a broad, robust, and transferable meaning for that concept.

Separation allows the individual to discern one feature of an object of learning from other features by varying only the feature of interest while holding all other features constant. This allows the individual to experience and construct meaning for a particular feature of the object of learning, critical or otherwise, independent of each other. Each part is separated from the whole. This pattern of variation may not easily lend itself to a real world example. However, an example of separation would be exposing a child to several dogs each of which are identical in all features except size. One dog would be small. Another dog would be larger, and so on. By keeping all other features constant, the child would be able to discern the feature of dog size and separate that feature from all other features of the concept of dog . The separation of variables lends itself much more easily to the more controlled environment of the classroom. When learning about pH, a teacher might ask students to solve several problems in which the student must solve for the pH of a solution when different volumes of a 1 M strong acid are added to an acetic acid buffer . All other features of the buffer problems would be the same. Thus, the student would be able to separate the influence of the volume of acid being added on the pH of a buffer system from all other variables in the buffer problems.

Lastly, fusion allows the individual to discern variation in several features of an object of learning simultaneously. The experience of multiply varied features facilitates the discernment of relationships between the features of an object of learning. Each part is fused together to create the whole. This is often the child's experience of the concept of dog. The size, smell, color, body shape, and demeanor of the dog are all perceived together and fused to create a unique conception of a dog. In the classroom, the pH of a buffer system might be observed when the volume, concentration, and type of acid added are all varied. All of the individual parts interact to form a specific whole. The students' ability to perceive each component and its specific contribution to the whole can foster a more coherent conception of the concept.

Methodological considerations

The type of data collected in a study informed by variation theory depends on the specific research question being asked. The intended object of learning “consists of the concepts and their features that the teacher […] aims to communicate” ( Rundgren and Tibell, 2009, p. 229 ). As the intended object of learning is internalized within the teacher, a retelling of the teacher's perceptions of the object of learning offers insight into the intention behind the curricular and instructional design. The intended object of learning is unique to the individual and can only be expressed as “a second-order description, a description of the phenomenon as experienced” ( Marton and Booth, 1997, p. 163 ). A second-order perspective means that the information received by the researcher is expressed by another party. Thus, teacher interviews and artefacts are used to assess the intended object of learning.

Similar to the intended object of learning, the lived object of learning is unique to the individual student and is expressed as a second-order description. Salient features and students' understanding of the learning event are accessed through students' retelling of the learning experience. This individual retelling of experience may come in the form of individual interviews, written artefacts, or group discussions ( e.g. , Rundgren and Tibell, 2009 ).

In contrast to both the intended and lived objects of learning, the enacted object of learning is expressed from a first-order perspective ( Marton and Booth, 1997 ). “It is described by the researcher from the point of view of what is afforded to the learners” ( Runesson, 2005, p. 70 ). Researcher observations of the enacted object of learning are often the primary (and sometimes only) source of data in variation theory literature ( e.g. , Runesson, 1999 ). The classroom usually defines the context within which the possibilities for student learning are enacted. This enactment of the object of learning is often captured as audio and video data ( e.g. , Ingerman et al. , 2009 ). However, the classroom is not the only forum in which an object of learning could be enacted. For example, an ongoing research study is using variation theory to explore student learning from external representations, i.e. , in that study, students' interactions with pictures and animations—and not a classroom learning event—are defined as the enacted object of learning ( Bussey, 2013 ). However, in all venues, the enactment of the object of learning is assessed from the researcher perspective and focuses on identifying the variation of features of the object of learning presented to students.

Assumptions of variation theory

“People live in a world which they—and not only the researchers—experience. They are affected by what affects them, and not by what affects the researchers. What this boils down to […] is taking the experiences of people seriously and exploring the physical, the social, and the cultural world they experience.” ( Marton and Booth, 1997, p. 13 ).

The main assumption of phenomenographic theoretical frameworks, like variation theory, is that a person's conceptions and experiences of a given phenomenon are accessible through language ( Svensson, 1997 ). Thus, variation theory looks to capture this experience through the re-telling of experience.

“…[T]he only route we have into the learner's own experience is that experience itself as expressed in words or acts. We have to ask learners what their experiences are like, watch what they do, observe what they learn and what makes them learn, analyse what learning is for them.” ( Marton and Booth, 1997, p. 16 ).

In doing so, the underlying assumption is that an individual's retelling of an experience is synonymous with the original experience. This is not to say that the individual is expected to recall every detail of their experience. As noted previously, working memory has a limited capacity. Thus, no one is able to attend to all details and features of an event. Instead, variation theory assumes that the individual's retelling is analogous to their unique experience of the event. It is quite possible that, because an individual will pay attention to certain features of their experience and not to others, the individual's interpretation and retelling of an event will not be the same as what would be described by an outside observer. Thus, some would argue that the main assumption of phenomenographic theoretical frameworks—that conceptions and experiences are accessible through language—is not a valid one ( Richardson, 1999 ; Saljo, 1997 ). To counter this argument, however, one could acknowledge that although an individual may not—and probably never could—recall all features of an experience that were salient to them at the time they experienced it, the features that remain salient over time are the ones that anchor and continue to structure their understanding of the event and, thus, are the most important, or critical features of that event to the individual that experienced it.

A further limitation of the ‘individual retelling’ methodology lies in the limitations of language. An experience and the words used to describe that experience are not synonymous. As language is socially constructed and individually understood, the audience may understand the vocabulary used by an individual differently from its intended meaning. Furthermore, an individual's ability to articulate their experienced and conceptualized understanding may be significantly different from their actual experience and understanding. Thus, what an individual experienced during an event, what the individual perceived and understood about the event, what the individual recalled about the event, and what the individual said about their recollection of the event might all be different. It should be noted that this critique is not meant to invalidate the personal narrative of an individual's perception of the world, but only to point out the possible discrepancies between the phenomenon, the perception of the phenomenon, and the articulation of the perception of the phenomenon for which the researcher should attempt to account.

Applications of variation theory for chemical education research

Specific applications of variation theory to the study of chemistry learning are even more limited. As noted earlier, Park et al. (2009) have examined college students' conceptions of atomic structure. Using variation theory and learning progressions, they note that students were able to progress towards the target model of atomic structure by being aware of variations between their own conceptual models and the target model. A more recent study is using variation theory to explore the possibilities for student learning from external representations—pictures and animations—of biochemical concepts ( Bussey, 2013 ).

Overall, in both science education and chemistry education research, variation theory is a potentially powerful, but underused, theoretical framework. Other theoretical frameworks—including conceptual profiles ( e.g. , Mortimer, 1998 ), cognitive resources ( e.g. , Hammer, 2004 ; Taber and Garcia Franco, 2010 ), and learning trajectories ( e.g. , Petri and Neidderer, 1998 )—have attempted to answer the question we posed at the beginning of this article, i.e. , how is it that two students experience the same leaning event differently? Each of these frameworks offers a unique perspective from which to answer this question. For example, Mortimer (1998) attempts to answer this question from a student perspective through an analysis of student discourse. We find variation theory to be a particularly valuable theoretical framework because it attempts to answer our initial question not just from one perspective but from three perspectives through an examination of the intended object of learning (the teacher perspective), enacted object of learning (the researcher's perspective of the potential for student learning created by the learning environment), and lived object of learning (the student perspective). With this article, we hope to inform the field of variation theory's potential and encourage its use in future chemistry education research studies. In using this framework, however, researchers need to be aware of some of its limitations.

Limitations of variation theory

The impact of prior knowledge on the lived object of learning.

Based on the extensive literature on expert/novice differences and the influence of prior knowledge on learning outcomes, we have chosen to acknowledge and integrate students' prior knowledge into a modified model of variation theory, as a key component in assessing students’ lived object of learning ( Fig. 3 ).

We argue that students' lived object of learning is informed not simply by the features of the enacted object of learning to which students attend but also by their prior knowledge of the concept and related features and concepts. In fact, the features to which students attend in the first place and the subsequent meaning they make may be influenced by their experience with similar objects and features in addition to the situational experience of variation in those objects or features. We also argue that the relationship between prior knowledge and the lived object of learning is unidirectional and temporally bound when seen from a variation theory perspective (see Fig. 3 ). In other words, a student's prior knowledge upon entering the space of learning will influence the lived object of learning; however, the lived object of learning cannot retroactively alter the base of knowledge the student had prior to the specific learning event under examination in a study informed by variation theory. In making this claim of the unidirectional relationship between prior knowledge and the lived object of learning, we also acknowledge that students' lived object of learning from the learning event under examination in a study informed by variation theory becomes part of the students' prior knowledge for a future learning event and a future study informed by variation theory.

We consider variation theory's failure to explicitly address the effect of students' prior knowledge on the lived object of learning to be a significant limitation of the original conception of variation theory. However, this limitation can be easily addressed by chemistry education researchers. We suggest adding a fourth research question to studies informed by variation theory: What do students know about the object of learning before the learning event takes place? This could be thought of as a pre-lived object of learning , while students' understanding of the object of learning after the learning event takes place could be considered to be a post-lived object of learning . We suggest that researchers assess this pre-lived object of learning through an interview that is implemented prior to the learning event, although such information may also be collected through a questionnaire or pre-test.

The influence of the act of assessing students' prior knowledge—a pre-test of sorts—must be addressed within the research design. By nature, a pre-test makes a student aware of the content they are expected to learn and, thus, potentially influences the learning event ( McMillan and Schumacher, 2009 ). Some of this influence can be diminished by masking the target content in the assessment of prior knowledge by including additional questions or items that are not closely related to the specific concepts under examination ( e.g. , including questions about equilibrium when bonding is the target concept). Further, as a statement of good practice, we suggest using the same assessment prior to and following the enacted object of learning ( i.e. , pre-post). By using such a repeated measure, the researcher can assess any learning gains that occur as a result of the learning event while accounting for students' prior knowledge.

It is true that the act of assessing prior knowledge could potentially influence student learning. However, this limitation and threat to internal validity exists for all forms of pre-assessment and cannot be accounted for entirely or completely controlled. Instead, researchers must make note of this potential influence and give it due consideration when developing conclusions. Given that prior knowledge has a significant effect on how students construct new knowledge ( Novak, 1990 ), we believe that the value gained through an understanding of students' knowledge prior to a learning event outweighs the potential limitations caused by an assessment of that prior knowledge.

The impact of instructional materials design on the objects of learning

Consider, for example, the situation where an instructor is assigned to teach a course that uses a context-based curriculum; these materials, organized by the context in which chemistry is applied ( e.g. , water quality, sustainable living), typically involve a collection of learner-centered activities that have been designed by someone other than the person who is implementing the materials ( Pilot and Bulte, 2006 ; Vos et al. , 2010 ). In this situation, a lecture topic approach to instruction potentially puts the instructor at odds with the instructional materials. Student learning would be influenced by the nature of the students and some combination of the approach of the instructor, the instructional materials design, and the interaction among all components. This potential for instructional materials to influence the different objects of learning should be addressed as an expansion of variation theory.

Since instructional materials—including both physical and virtual resources—are designed for the purpose of facilitating learning ( Grossman and Thompson, 2004 ), they have a unique relationship with the enacted object of learning. These resources, as created by some combination of curriculum designers, textbook authors, instructors, etc. , represent a consensus of all responsible parties and are designed with a specific philosophy and purpose. For example, in the case of a publisher's textbook, the team of individuals responsible for producing that volume have written the narrative, sequenced the content and exercises, constructed pictures and diagrams, and added additional learning supports that emanate from their design frameworks ( e.g. , worked examples, concept maps, glossary, etc. ). The instructor may or may not have been part of this team and may or may not share in their philosophy or fully understand how to implement the materials that have been specifically designed to support learning. Thus, the enacted object of learning has the potential to be a hybrid of the instructor's intent and the unintended influence of the instructional materials design. This unintended effect is acting as a confounding variable by influencing the enacted object directly and subsequently affording or constraining the lived object of learning. Understanding the nature and magnitude of this unintended consequence for both the enacted and lived objects of learning represents a fruitful area of potential research, especially given the popularity and availability of digital resources and interactive, digital learning objects for chemical education ( e.g. , ChemEd Digital Library).

That there is a potential influence of instructional materials design on both the enacted object of learning and the lived object of learning seems clear; however, we also claim that instructional materials design can affect the intended object of learning. In other words, the instructional materials available to an instructor might change the instructor's intentions for a learning event. Take, for example, a general chemistry instructor who is preparing to teach a class about the kinetic molecular theory. One of her original intentions is to help her students develop an understanding of the random motion of gas molecules. During her preparations, the instructor might come across a simulation that will allow students to visualize that random motion. One feature of that simulation allows the teacher to show a graph depicting a Boltzmann distribution of the velocities of the gas molecules. Because of this affordance of the simulation, the teacher's goals expand to include the intention that students will understand that, in a sample of a gas, the molecules are moving at different speeds. In this case, the teacher's intentions, and what eventually happens in the classroom, are affected by the instructional materials design. It is worth noting that the relationship between instructional materials design and the intended object of learning is, for the most part, unidirectional. That is, while the instructional materials design may influence an instructor's intentions for a learning event, the instructor's intentions do not often have an influence on the instructional materials design—unless the instructor happens to be a part of an instructional design team.

Recognizing the potential influence of instructional materials design on all three objects of learning, we have chosen to include it as a feature in our modified model of variation theory ( Fig. 4 ). Because the instructional materials are designed to facilitate learning and represent an abstraction of expert thought about a given object of learning, we place instructional materials design in the teacher sphere of variation theory.

As previously described, instructional materials design has potential effects on each of the objects of learning. The influence of instructional materials design on the intended object of learning is unidirectional. Because this influence is often an unacknowledged one ( i.e. , the instructor may not acknowledge or recognize that instructional materials design can affect their intentions for instruction), we have chosen to represent this relationship as a dashed arrow.

The influence of instructional materials design on the enacted object of learning, on the other hand, is direct and explicit. Moreover, the possibility exists that a design team operating independently from the instructor could garner feedback from the enacted object of learning that could then be used to modify the instructional materials for a future learning event. For this reason, we present the relationship between instructional materials design and the enacted object of learning as a bidirectional arrow.

The influence of instructional materials design on the lived object is indirect and mediated through the enacted object of learning. As such, the model does not show a direct link between instructional materials design and the lived object of learning.

This expansion of variation theory to include the influence of instructional materials design adds to its utility for chemical education research. When researchers recognize the influence of instructional materials design, unintended or otherwise, on both teaching and learning, they can examine each of the objects of learning from this new perspective by asking such additional research questions as: (1) what did the instructional designers intend for students to learn from their materials?; and (2) in what ways might the instructional materials design and the instructor's intent be interacting?; (3) what influence does the interaction between the instructional materials design and the instructor's intent have on the enacted object of learning?; and (4) what influence does the interaction between the instructional materials design and the instructor's intent have on the lived object of learning?

Using variation theory with the added perspective of the potential impact of instructional materials design on teaching and learning supports research questions that more fully recognize the elements of the learning environment that are influencing student learning. As researchers, we can deepen our understanding of how students learn chemistry and how to better design supportive learning environments by recognizing the instructional materials design as well as the intent and actions of the instructor as separate, but related, entities. In today's classes that are increasing dependent on digital technologies as mediating tools for the teaching and learning process, a model of variation theory that acknowledges the influence of instructional materials design is a particularly useful tool for chemical education research as well as for improving instructional practice.

The Sisters of Charity in Nineteenth-Century America: Civil War Nurses and Philanthropic Pioneers

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This thesis seeks to answer the following question: What was the legacy of the Sisters of Charity in the history of philanthropy, women’s history, medicine and nursing? The Sisters of Charity was a Catholic religious order that provided volunteer nurses, and became highly visible, during the American Civil War. Several hundred Catholic sister nurses served; they supported both the Union and Confederacy by caring for soldiers from both armies. The sisters’ story is important because of the religious and gender biases they overcame. As nurses, the Sisters of Charity interacted with different people: they cared for soldiers, worked at the direction of surgeons and alongside lay relief workers. The war propelled them into public view, and the sisters acted as agents of change. Their philanthropy eroded some of the antebellum cultural proscriptions that previously confined Catholics, women and nurses. This thesis argues the Sisters of Charity created and implemented an antebellum philanthropic model, key aspects of which the majority, non-Catholic culture emulated after the war. The Sisters of Charity were agents of social change: they broke down religious, social and gender barriers, and developed a prototype for a healthcare model that the secular world emulated. Many women responded to the unprecedented suffering and cataclysmic conditions of the Civil War in a multitude of ways, and philanthropy was forever changed as a result. Wartime benevolence provided templates for large-scale voluntary organizations, illuminated the issue of payment for charity workers, moved the practice of philanthropy from individual to institutional, and led to the development of nursing as a profession. Female voluntarism shifted into the front and center of the public sphere. Charitable work moved along the continuum from individual to institutional, from volunteer to professional. Questions regarding the respective roles of payment to charitable workers developed. Nursing gained recognition as a profession, and formal training began. The Sisters of Charity were leaders in all these areas, and their orders served as models for the future of philanthropy. Yet they are often absent from analyses of the trajectory of nineteenth-century philanthropy, and this thesis delivers them to the discussion.

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Taking photos of the northern lights with your smartphone? Tips to get the best picture

The northern lights can be seen again tonight in many parts of the northern United States. Displaying many colors from light pink to dark grays, the phenomenon in the sky is an event you’d want to capture.

Starting on Friday, May 10 many residents across the United States documented their pictures of the phenomenon on social media. The pictures, that look like wallpaper photos, have shown palm trees with an Ombre pink background and metro cities with a distinctive overcast.

Forecasters are predicting that many parts of the northern United States will see the aurora borealis again tonight and on Sunday night between 10:00 a.m. and 2:00 a.m. local time.

Most people are looking up and capturing the beauty of the northern lights with amazing photos. And unless you’re a professional photographer with a DSLR handy, most are doing so with their smartphones.

In a call with reporters on Friday, Brent Gordon, Chief of Space Weather Services Branch for SWPC, said that using your smartphone could be the best way to view the northern lights. Even better than the human eye.

If you want to capture the northern lights perfectly on your smartphone, here are some tips.

Northern lights Saturday forecast: What's your chance of seeing the aurora borealis tonight?

How to get the best photos of the northern lights

Experts say you can capture memorable photos of the northern lights on your smartphone by adjusting the exposure time and enabling night mode if the feature is available on your device. Additionally, you can try out types of compositions on your smartphone for the best shots:

Wide-angle shot: Holding your phone horizontally you can achieve a wide angle shot. To get that wallpaper type picture you’ll want to use this angle to capture everything in front of you.

Pan: If you have the pano feature on your phone, you can flip your phone, either horizontally or vertically, to achieve a good photo that will also capture everything around you.

C or S Curve: Are the lights glowing on the street in your area? Snap a photo of it! C or S Curve photos are used to bring you in and out of a photo hypothetically. To achieve this, a curve has to be present and make the letter "C" or "S" in the photo.

Candid: Are you viewing the northern lights with family or friends? They can get in on the photo too! Standing behind them, you can capture their shadows as they look at the northern lights. You can also have your photo subjects walk in front of the lens as you take the photo. The style of shot is meant to be fun so there’s no right or wrong way you can achieve this.

Photos aside, remember to embrace this event

Yes, you want to get the perfect photo to post on social media or show off to your friends. However, you should still try to make memories with those around you to be able to talk about this event in the future. Remember that photos capture a moment of our lives, but memories are recorded events that we replay again and again in our heads for years to come.

Contributing: Eric Lagatta, USA TODAY

Ahjané Forbes is a reporter on the National Trending Team at USA TODAY. Ahjané covers breaking news, car recalls, crime, health, lottery and public policy stories. Email her at [email protected] . Follow her on Instagram , Threads and X (Twitter)

An IRS change cut child support for Native moms. Other families may be next.

Tribal families have lost access to certain child support payments that the IRS used to collect by garnishing tax refunds. The rest of the country could follow.

A standoff with Congress rooted in taxpayer privacy has prompted the IRS to cut off a form of child support for families in at least 10 Native American tribes, a scenario that could be replicated in all 50 states as soon as this fall, affecting hundreds of thousands more households.

Every year, more than 1 million tax refunds are garnished at the request of state governments and rerouted to custodial parents. Those efforts are a key piece of the nation’s child support pipeline — representing $2 billion, or 6 percent of such payments in 2022. For many families, those seizures are the only source of child support.

But federal law doesn’t allow Native American tribes to collect overdue child support through the tax system, and the IRS has suspended a workaround that formerly allowed some tribes to seize those funds. Meanwhile, a separate concern over states’ data sharing could upend the system more broadly.

Most states use contractors to retrieve and reroute federal refunds to custodial parents. But the IRS is supposed to share certain taxpayer information with only governments, not third parties — a rule it overlooked for years for the purpose of sending child support payments.

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Last year, the agency changed course and said it would follow the data-sharing restrictions in all instances, notifying states that they had until October 2024 to submit plans showing how they will comply with privacy rules that most states say would be too costly to follow.

That would affect a large swath of the 13 million children — of whom about half live below or near federal poverty levels — covered by child support agreements. For the 2023 filing season, the average federal tax refund was $2,850.

While most observers expect either the IRS or Congress to resolve the problem before it gets to the state level, the IRS already has cut off hundreds of tribal members. IRS officials did not respond to questions from The Washington Post about why states were given time to address the issue, while tribes have already been denied access to tax refunds.

Kimberly Brockie, a member of the Gros-Ventre tribe in Montana, says she has struggled to get child support from the father of her three children since their 2007 split. The last time was 2021, when she got his $1,600 tax refund. He still owes her more than $30,000, she said.

Her ex confirmed the debt. He told The Post he has withheld child support because of serious disputes with Brockie over parenting decisions.

“I put myself in debt trying to make ends meet with three kids,” said Brockie, who manages a college bookstore. “It’s hard. I’m still trying to claw back out of that debt. Why should he be able to live good now because of whatever the IRS has going on? It’s punishing the people that don’t get help from the other parent.”

Willowa “Sis” Horn, who runs the child support program for Brockie’s tribe, said the tribe has about 300 cases but only 56 paying parents. “We wanted to get access to tax intercepts to help bring our huge debt down,” she said.

Nearly every child support program in the country employs contractors for such tasks as maintaining computerized case logs, manning call centers for parents, or communicating with employers about garnishing wages. One company, Maximus, told The Post that it has contracts with 23 state programs, and it has worked with all 50 states at some point.

More than 5 million Americans pay child support, according to the Census Bureau , and about a third of them do not pay regularly. The median monthly payment is $374.

Child support professionals have been urging Congress to change the law to allow the use of contractors. The House held a hearing on the topic last year, but has yet to hold a vote. Earlier this year, IRS Commissioner Danny Werfel told lawmakers he would consider delaying enforcement if Congress doesn’t act by October.

That hasn’t reassured state officials, many of whom are perplexed by the newfound urgency surrounding contractors.

Some have linked it to the 2023 conviction of Charles Littlejohn , the former IRS contractor who leaked the confidential tax returns of former president Donald Trump to the New York Times and the returns of thousands of wealthy Americans to ProPublica and was sentenced to five years in prison.

However, the IRS announced its enforcement plan months before Littlejohn’s arrest. The 2019 Taxpayer First Act, which was passed years before the Littlejohn case emerged, required the agency to more tightly monitor contractors’ access to data, according to an IRS official who spoke on the condition of anonymity because they were not authorized to publicly discuss the agency’s decision-making.

“My view is that there’s been increased interest in Congress and increased pressure on the IRS to not have any breaches, and sometimes they’ve been associated with contractors, and there’s the whole ProPublica stuff,” said Kate Cooper Richardson, who runs Oregon’s child support program.

Richardson was president of a national association of child support directors when the IRS announced plans to block contractor access. “That was a bomb dropped on all the states,” Richardson said. “We can’t mitigate this. We can’t bring all functions in-house.”

The IRS flagged Oregon’s program for storing case data on a contractor’s servers, rather than those owned by the state, Richardson said. “If I got rid of them, I would have to bring all of that in-house, which I just don’t have the capacity for,” she said. “It would take years to do.”

Richardson said it would cost $15 million to set up state-owned servers and more than $2 million a year to run them, which is much more than the cost of contractors.

The use of contractors varies from state to state. Kansas has almost entirely privatized its child support system, while other states rarely employ contractors.

Colorado uses a contractor, SMI, to help send checks to parents, said child support director Larry Desbien. “These companies are very skilled at doing this. They have tremendous software,” he said. “For a state to take over those operations … would be a major undertaking.”

But even states without outside help have been flagged by the IRS. In North Dakota, director James Fleming said the IRS told him that he was inappropriately sharing taxpayer data because he shared information with the state treasurer’s office.

“We don’t issue checks. Our state treasurer does,” Fleming said. “I’ve got to involve other state agencies in order to cut Mom that check. The IRS says they’re not child support, they’re contractors. You scratch your head and say, ‘How in blazes am I going to get this money back to her?’ ”

Some tribes have gotten around data-sharing rules by having states submit their lists of delinquent parents to the IRS. In 2021, North Dakota collected $500,000 in tax offsets for tribal families on tribes’ behalf, Fleming said. But then the IRS said such arrangements were illegal. Tribes that used to access tax refunds through Fleming’s office were cut off.

In Wisconsin, tribal child support assistant director Sunnie Bisonette said about 700 families in the Lac Courte Oreilles tribe lost access to federal tax offsets; the average annual payment was more than $1,200. In any given year, a tax refund was the only child support that 30 percent to 55 percent of families in the program received. “What it means is, it’s less money in families’ households, less money for school clothes,” Bissonet said.

In their rural community, Bissonet said she sees some fathers who owe child support to more than one mother, sometimes one who is a member of the tribe and one who is not. Because of the IRS change, the nontribal mothers are now getting the full tax refund, while the tribal mothers get no child support.

The disparity frustrates many on Native American reservations. “Tribes are already economically depressed areas with extremely high unemployment,” said Jerl Thompson, who runs the Standing Rock Sioux tribe’s child support program. “With one method some families had of receiving relief, it’s further oppressing people living in the area.”

Austin Kasto, a member of the Standing Rock Sioux tribe in North Dakota, received little child support for years following her divorce. Then circumstances changed: Her ex-husband had more children, she said, which pumped up the size of his tax refund. His 2021 and 2022 refunds were garnished, yielding $5,100 and $9,700, respectively, she said. Kasto’s ex-husband did not respond to messages from The Post, but Thompson, who runs her tribe’s child support program, confirmed that Kasto formerly received her ex’s tax refunds and no longer can.

With that first check, Kasto said she paid for their daughter, now 16, to get braces. Anticipating a similar payment for the 2023 tax year, she told her 13-year-old son he would be next.

Then her tribe was kicked out of the IRS child support offset program, and she told her son he wouldn’t be getting braces anytime soon. “He just moped around for months,” she said.

Without the tax money, “we can’t afford it,” she said. “It’s $235 a month for his braces for two years. There’s just no way right now.”

Mom delivers baby in car hours before defending her Rutgers doctoral thesis

Updated: May. 08, 2024, 3:05 p.m. |
Published: May. 08, 2024, 11:30 a.m.

Tamiah Brevard-Rodriguez delivered her son, Enzo, hours before defending her dissertation at the Rutgers-New Brunswick Graduate School of Education. Nick Romanenko/Rutgers University

Tina Kelley | NJ Advance Media for NJ.com

Giving birth and defending a doctoral dissertation could easily be considered among the most stressful items on a bucket list. For Tamiah Brevard-Rodriguez, it was all in a day’s work. One day’s work.

She even grabbed a shower in between.

On March 24, Brevard-Rodriguez, director of Aresty Research Center at Rutgers University, was finishing up preparations for her doctoral defense the next day. Eight months pregnant with her second child, she didn’t feel terrific, but she persisted.

She was trying to hone down to 20 minutes her remarks on “The Beauty Performances of Black College Women: A Narrative Inquiry Study Exploring the Realities of Race, Respectability, and Beauty Standards on a Historically White Campus.” The Zoom link had gone out to family, friends, and colleagues for the defense, scheduled for 1 p.m. the next day.

“Operation Dissertation before Baby,” as she called it, was a go.

But at 2:15 a.m. on March 25 her water broke, a month and a day early.

As the contractions came closer and closer, her wife drove her down the Garden State Parkway, trying to get to Hackensack Meridian Mountainside Medical Center in Montclair before Baby Enzo showed up.

But the baby was faster than a speeding Maserati and arrived in the front seat at 5:55 a.m., after just three pushes. He weighed in at 5-pounds 12-ounces, 19 inches long, and in perfect health for a baby four weeks early.

“I did have to detail her car afterward,” the new mom said of her wife.

Brevard-Rodriguez was feeling so good after the birth that she decided against asking to reschedule her thesis defense.

“I had more than enough time to regroup, shower, eat and proceed with the dissertation,” she said. She had a quick nap, too. The doctors and nurses supported her decision and made sure she had access to reliable wifi at the hospital.

She gave her defense with a Rutgers background screen. When she learned she had passed, she dropped the fake background, and people could see Brevard-Rodriguez in her maternity bed, and Enzo in her wife’s arms.

“I said, ‘You guys missed the big news,’ and they just fell out,” said Brevard-Rodriguez, who waited for the reveal because she didn’t want extra sympathy from her dissertation committee.

Melina Mangin, chair of the Educational Theory, Policy & Administration Department at the Graduate School of Education, was astounded.

“Tamiah had delivered a flawless defense with zero indication that she had just given birth,” she said. “She really took the idea of productivity to the next level!”

Finishing her doctorate in education and having her last child were fitting 40th birthday presents to herself, Brevard-Rodriguez said. She turned 40 in November and returns to work in late August.

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Variation Order
Variation Order
variation order in construction malaysia
SOLUTION: Variation order template
Variation Order Template
Variation Order In Construction Malaysia

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Method of Variation of parameters|Ordinary differential equations of higher order
Brahms: Variations on a Theme by Haydn, Op. 56a
Variation iteration method for non linear ordinary differential equation(VIM for pdes)
Korean Footwork Dictionary Page.4 / Tino Roc [FloorGangz/TBB] / Allthatbreak.com
Method of Variation of parameters|Ordinary differential equations of higher order
Brahms: Variations on a Theme by Haydn, Op. 56a

COMMENTS

PDF St. Mary'S University of Variation Order and Its Effect on Construction
variation order and its effect on construction project performance: in the case of road construction projects in addis ababa by haimanot chalchissa 2021 smu addis ababa, ethiopia ... a thesis submitted to st. mary's university school of graduate studies in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of master of arts in project
PDF Variation Orders on Construction Projects: Value-adding or Waste?
Value - The findings of the study will increase the awareness of the impact of variation orders on overall construction project performance and will enable the development of proactive measures to reduce them. [email protected], Tel +27219596317, Mobile +27737215859.
Assessing the Impact of Variation Orders on Public Building Projects in
Assessing the Impact of Variation Orders on Public Building Projects in Addis Ababa: M.Sc Thesis Addis Ababa University iii Addis Ababa Institute of Technology DECLARATION "I declare that this research report entitled "Assessing the Impact of Variation Orders on Public Building Projects in Addis Ababa" is the result
(PDF) Significant Causes and Effects of Variation Orders in
B. Sc. Thesis, National University of Singapore. Gray, C. and W. Hughes, ... A variation order is the formal document that is used to modify the original contractual agreement, and it becomes part ...
PDF An Analysis of The Impact of Variation Orders on Project Performance
AN ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF VARIATION ORDERS ON PROJECT PERFORMANCE By RUBEN NDIHOKUBWAYO ... Center till the submission of the thesis. My thanks go to Cassius Sindayigaya, Donatien Nibasumba, Iris Uwimana, flatmates Majani and Raji, Pastor Levis and the members of
PDF The Effect of Variation Orders on Project Cost and Schedule Overruns
In contrast, projects with omitted work VO's had lower cost and schedule overruns (5.8% and 36.4%) than those without omitted work (18.1% and 50.9%). The other VO types investigated had little effect on the increase or decrease of the cost and schedule overruns. Lastly the chapter investigated the timing of VO's.
Assessing the Impact of Variation Orders on Construction Projects
This study investigated the impact of variation orders on project performance in order to propose measures to reduce them. ... (2002) Causes and Improvement for Quality Problems in Design & Build Projects. Unpublished BSc. Thesis, National University of Singapore Gray, C. and Hughes, W. (2001) Building Design Management. Butterworth-Heinemann ...
Variation Orders on Construction Projects: Value-adding or Waste?
variation orders on overall construction p roject performance and will enable the. development of proac tive measures to reduc e them. 1 ndihokubwayor@cp ut.ac.za, Tel +2721959 6317, Mobile +27737 ...
Causes, effects and possible solutions of variation order in project
This thesis deals with the variation order that occurs in every construction project and how it affects the performance of the projects itself. Variation order is defined as the additions, omissions, alterations and substitution in terms of quality, quantity and schedule of works. Malaysia as a developing country is overgrown with various type of construction project here and there and the ...
PDF Impact of Variation Orders on Public Construction Projects
Sunday, O A (2010) Impact of variation orders on public construction projects. In: Egbu, C. (Ed) Procs 26th Annual ARCOM Conference, 6-8 September 2010, Leeds, UK, Association of Researchers in. any construction contract because without it the contractor is not bound to execute additional work or to make omissions or changes.
Buildings
This study aims to identify the causes of excessive change orders and their impact on public construction projects in Saudi Arabia. This should support the organizations working in the construction industry to improve variation order management (VOM) as a preventive action by dealing proactively with variation order causes. Therefore, a new methodology was proposed to minimize change orders ...
Variations and Change Orders on Construction Projects
Arain, F. M. (2002) "Design-construction interface dissonances." Masters' thesis, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
An analysis of the impact of variation orders on project performance
The complexity of works was the most predominant factor influencing the occurrence of variation orders. The reduction of the occurrence of variation orders was traced back to the pre-contract stage given that the most predominant origin agent of variation orders was the client and then due to an unclear brief of works to be executed.
St. Mary's University Institutional Repository: VARIATION ORDER AND ITS
Variation order is pointed out as one of the major reasons that lead to poor construction project performance. The research was explanatory and the research design was survey design. A quantitative research approach was adopted and the hypothesis was also tested. ... Haimanot_Chaclhissa_PM2011A_Final_thesis,_for_final_submission.pdf: 1.02 MB ...
(PDF) Significant Causes and Effects of Variation Orders in
Variation orders have become a common problem in construction projects in Malaysia also which are incurred because of various causes and result with a negative impact on projects. ... Geok, O.S., 2002. Causes and improvement for quality problems in design and build projects. Unpublished B. Sc. Thesis, National University of Singapore. Gray, C ...
Parameters and effects of word order variation
Parameters and effects of word order variation. Noam Chomsky. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Dept. of Linguistics and Philosophy. Thesis (Ph.D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Linguistics and Philosophy, 1984. MICROFICHE COPY AVAILABLE IN ARCHIVES AND HUMANITIES.
Variations Order of Building Construction Project a Case from Nepal
Existence of variation orders inside Tribhuvan University premises, Kathmandu has been noted from the study. 9.85%, 5.99%, 10.37%, 12.32% and 21.02% cost above the contract amount has been ...
Causes of Variation Orders in Road Construction Projects in ...
A variation order is the formal document that is used to modify the original contractual agreement provided to the contractor by the client or the client's representative and becomes part of the project's documents [3-5]. Arguably, variation orders may be seen as counter to the principle of waste reduction.
What is a Variation Order? (With Templates and Examples)
VARIATION ORDER #22. Subject: Variation Order #22 - Additional Excavation Around Piles. Dear Contractor, The Owner refers to the agreement executed on [date] between the Owner and the Contractor for the Construction of a Warehouse. Pursuant to clause 10.3, the Owner hereby instructs the Contractor to proceed with the following Variation Order.
AUC Knowledge Fountain
AUC Knowledge Fountain | American University in Cairo Research
Parameters and effects of word order variation
Description. Thesis (Ph.D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Linguistics and Philosophy, 1984. MICROFICHE COPY AVAILABLE IN ARCHIVES AND HUMANITIES. Bibliography: leaves 278-284.
Parameters and effects of word order variation
Thesis (Ph.D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Linguistics and Philosophy, 1984. Thesis (Ph.D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of ...
Variation theory: A theory of learning and a useful theoretical
Variation theory offers a framework from which researchers can explore the enacted object of learning in order to explain the differences between what teachers—including both instructors and instructional materials designers—intend for students to learn about a particular concept and what students actually learn about that concept.
The Sisters of Charity in Nineteenth-Century America: Civil War Nurses
This thesis seeks to answer the following question: What was the legacy of the Sisters of Charity in the history of philanthropy, women's history, medicine and nursing? The Sisters of Charity was a Catholic religious order that provided volunteer nurses, and became highly visible, during the American Civil War. Several hundred Catholic sister nurses served; they supported both the Union and ...
Helldivers 2 Players Failed the Last Major Order, and Now 'The ...
New orders. Helldivers 2 's ongoing meta-narrative took another twist this week after players failed the last Major Order and thus failed to unlock a promised new Stratagem. The explosive PC and ...
Northern lights: Tips to get perfect photos on your smartphone
Wide-angle shot: Holding your phone horizontally you can achieve a wide angle shot. To get that wallpaper type picture you'll want to use this angle to capture everything in front of you. Pan ...
(PDF) The Causes of Variation Orders and Their Effects ...
This study analyses the causes of variation orders and their effects on cost and time of projects in Sulaimani governorate. This study involves a questionnaire survey to selected 36 causes and 10 ...
Every James Bond Actor to Play the Role
The most iconic movie spy of all time, James Bond has been portrayed by multiple actors since his film debut in 1962. There are a total of 7 actors who have played the role of our beloved spy ...
Child support programs' access to IRS tax refunds in jeopardy
An IRS change cut child support for Native moms. Other families may be next. Tribal families have lost access to certain child support payments that the IRS used to collect by garnishing tax refunds.
Mom delivers baby in car hours before defending her Rutgers doctoral thesis
Giving birth and defending a doctoral dissertation could easily be considered among the most stressful items on a bucket list. For Tamiah Brevard-Rodriguez, it was all in a day's work. One day ...