macbeth fate thesis

William Shakespeare

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From the moment the weird sisters tell Macbeth and Banquo their prophecies, both the characters and the audience are forced to wonder about fate. Is it real? Is action necessary to make it come to pass, or will the prophecy come true no matter what one does? Different characters answer these questions in different ways at different times, and the final answers are ambiguous—as fate always is.

Unlike Banquo, Macbeth acts: he kills Duncan . Macbeth tries to master fate, to make fate conform to exactly what he wants. But, of course, fate doesn't work that way. By trying to master fate once, Macbeth puts himself in the position of having to master fate always. At every instant, he has to struggle against those parts of the witches' prophecies that don't favor him. Ultimately, Macbeth becomes so obsessed with his fate that he becomes delusional: he becomes unable to see the half-truths behind the witches' prophecies. By trying to master fate, he brings himself to ruin.

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Fate Quotes in Macbeth

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Macbeth Fate Vs Free Will Analysis

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Macbeth Fate Essay

Macbeth is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare about the downfall of Macbeth, a Scottish lord and later King. Macbeth goes through three stages in his life: initially noble and just, then corrupted into committing regicide to attain power and eventually suffering from guilt. Macbeth’s tragic flaw or error is his ambition which leads him to murder the King, Duncan, in order to take his place. Macbeth is later visited by three apparitions or witches who predict Macbeth’s downfall.

This leads Macbeth to believe that he has free choice when in fact the course of Macbeth’s life was already predetermined. Several times throughout Macbeth Macbeth is reminded of the prophecies made by the witches. Macbeth is constantly questioning whether he has free will or not. Macbeth phrases questions such as, “Is this a dagger which I see before me? ” Macbeth constantly refers to different sources of power during Macbeth’s lifetime including fate, prophecy, and “supernatural soliciting.

Macbeth’s language is extremely significant in Macbeth. Macbeth changes his perspective on fate because of the witch’s prophecies that he has free choice and will be king. Macbeth often questions whether his actions are right or wrong, but eventually Macbeth sees himself as good person who struggles to do the right thing. Macbeth’s perspective on the witches and their prophecies change over time. MacBeth believes that the witches prediction of MacDuff taking his place as king is wrong because MacDuff already had a claim to royalty.

Years later, Macbeth calls Banquo’s issue with Fleance a “weakness in his prophecy” Macbeth views MacDuff as a threat because MacDuff is the rightful heir to the throne. MacBeth does not believe in fate for most of Macbeth’s life; he believes that he has free will and makes his own decisions. MacBeth’s perspective changes over time after being visited by different people including witches, Banquo, MacDuff, and Macbeth’s wife. This changes Macbeth’s perspective on fate and free will because Macbeth begins to be more aware of the influences of others on his decisions.

Macbeth is a dramatic tragedy by William Shakespeare about Macbeth, the Thane of Glamis and later also Than of Cawdor, who receives a prophecy from a trio of witches that one day he will become King of Scotland. The story is an expanded version of a tale from “Holinshed’s Chronicles”, a history of Britain familiar to Shakespeare. Macbeth becomes a heroic protagonist of his country and his personal ambition leads him to great risk as time passes. In the end, Macbeth loses everything – power, title and even his life – because he cannot overcome the influence of evil or defy fate.

Fate is defined as predestination: things that have been decided or ordained to happen in advance. Macbeth is a tragedy of Macbeth’s ambition leading him to ruin despite his heroism in the face of overwhelming forces. Macbeth begins with Macduff and Lennox discussing the strange events regarding predictions made by three witches about Macbeth. Macduff, being sceptical, does not believe that Macbeth will become king at all, whereas Lennox believes Macbeth was meant to be king from birth.

This conversation foreshadows Macbeth’s eventual downfall because he does become King but also because he cannot escape fate; it comes to control his life instead of allowing him to make his own decisions. When Macduff goes back to Scotland, Duncan names him Thane of Fife, Macbeth’s home county. Macbeth is initially happy and honoured to hear this news, but when Macduff then rebels against Macbeth and kills many members of the royal family, Macbeth does not even try to convince Macduff that he would be a better king than Duncan.

This shows that Macbeth wants power too much to risk it all for his friends or family. Fate controls Macbeth because he could have saved lives by making decisions other than murder, such as imprisoning Macduff so his country would still have a leader. However, Macbeth makes these bad choices because he thinks they will give him more power in the long run; whether his actions are good or evil does not matter, as Macbeth is not truly in control of his life. Macbeth’s fate is sealed when Macduff and Malcolm come to fight Macbeth.

Macbeth regrets his decision to kill Duncan, as he says “I am in blood/Stepp’d in so far that, should I wade no more,/Returning were as tedious as go o’er. ” Macbeth does not have a choice of whether or not he goes into battle because he is already stained with the blood of Duncan. Macduff kills Macbeth by wounding him with spears and then cutting off his head with a sword. The prophecy from the witches comes true – Macbeth has become king – but what they did not say is whether Macbeth would be a good king. Macbeth’s actions, which were not decided by his own will but by fate, show that he is not fit to rule as a monarch.

Thus, Macbeth does become King of Scotland, as the witches foretold through their prophecy, but it was all part of his downfall, as everything Macbeth did was predestined from the time he killed Duncan until the moment Macduff killed him (directly or indirectly). Fate controlled Macbeth throughout his life and ultimately led to his death; people seem unable to avoid fate even though they can make decisions. Shakespeare uses lots of symbolism in Macbeth because it shows how powerful words are; Macbeth can change his mind when Macduff rebels against him because Macduff says “Lay on Macduff, and damn’d be him who first cries hold!.

Macbeth hears this speech in Macduff’s third line of dialogue which shows Macbeth is willing to accept Macduff’s good advice. Macbeth knows that Macduff would not say this unless he was truly frightened for his life or someone else close to him, so Macbeth changes the way he thinks about what it means to kill Macduff. However, Macbeth does exactly what he did before with Banquo because the prophecy tells him that Banquo will be important one day which makes Macbeth paranoid.

This is Macbeth actually making a decision, but it goes against what Macduff said and therefore Macbeth is still not making his own decisions. Macbeth decides to kill Macduff’s family because he is afraid of Macduff, especially after the prophecy from the witches. This is perhaps another decision made by Macbeth because if Macbeth does not kill Macduff’s family, then Macduff might rebel against him even more. In this case, Macbeth makes a poor choice that will come back to haunt him in the future; it is possible that he would have had an easy time with Macduff and Malcolm if he left them alone.

However this choice was also caused by fate because Macbeth does not know what Macduff and Malcolm will do until Macduff tells him to “Lay on Macduff, and damn’d be him who first cries hold!. ” Macbeth’s paranoia towards the prophecy is an important part of his downfall as it makes him kill those around him that he fears will challenge his power. Fate controls Macbeth because if the witches never made a prophecy about Macbeth becoming king then Duncan would still be alive and Macbeth would never have become king. If this had happened, Macbeth might have lived a long life or at least more peacefully than he did.

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Essay: Macbeth – fate and free will

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Elbert Hubbard, an American Writer, once said, “Life is a compromise between fate and free will.” There is a constant struggle between what fate decides, and what the consequences of free will lead up to. Even if the end of a pathway is predetermined by fate, the way it is reached is through one’s own decisions made by free will. The consequences of these actions made in free will then determines how one comes about their destiny. In Macbeth, written by William Shakespeare, the characters suffer fated deaths resulted from their actions. Fate and free will cohesively go hand in hand ultimately leading up to the deaths of Duncan, Lady Macbeth, and Macbeth. The death of Duncan is determined by fate and free will because the actions of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth led to his death. When Macbeth comes across the witches, they reveal to him that he, “Macbeth, that shalt be king hereafter” (1.3.53), and he becomes ambitious to reach that position quickly. Throughout the play, Macbeth solely lives by the witches’ prophecies, basing his decisions off of what they say. At the time this prophecy was stated, Duncan was King of Scotland. Previously, the witches tell Macbeth that he would be Thane of Cawdor, which became true, so Macbeth believed in the accuracy of the prophecies. This persuaded Macbeth that it was in his fate that he would become King of Scotland, since it was predetermined by the witches. As it was Macbeth’s fate to become King of Scotland, it correlated that Duncan’s fate would be death, in order to fulfill the prophecy. Although it may seem that Duncan’s death was fate, Macbeth’s free will determined how he would take Duncan’s throne. After Macbeth heard his prophecy, he told Lady Macbeth his fate. She suggested that he should kill Duncan, and starts to plan the murder. Initially Macbeth was rather reluctant to Lady Macbeth’s idea of murder, however she later persuaded him into following through with the assassination. As Macbeth saw the blade, he asks, “Is this a dagger which I see before me,/ The handle toward my hand? Come, let me clutch/ thee” (2.1.44-46). Macbeth decides that he will murder Duncan out of his own free will. He explicitly asks for the dagger, “Come let me clutch thee” showing the desire behind his actions. Macbeth’s free will changes proportionally with his characterization, because he went from viewing murder as impure, to now committing one himself. As his values and perceptions change, Macbeth acts differently, which overall influences his free will. Fate and free will are both accountable for Duncan’s death because of the actions Macbeth took to fulfill the witches’ prophecy that he would become king. Lady Macbeth’s free will led to her negative influence on Macbeth, and eventually resulted in her fate, her death. At the beginning of the play, Lady Macbeth’s characterization was headstrong and powerful. She serves as the main influence for Macbeth to murder Duncan, as she extensively argues against Macbeth, demanding that he must follow through with the murder. She uses his own manhood against him by stating, “When you durst do it, then you were a man; / And, to be more than what you were, you would / be so much more the man” (1.7.56-58). Lady Macbeth was the first to know when Macbeth had heard the prophecy of becoming King of Scotland, and was overjoyed by the news. She made sure that he would fulfill his prophecy, regardless of any circumstances. She harshly criticizes Macbeth for not wanting to commit the murder, depreciating him as being less than a so called “man.” Her argument is effective, as Macbeth successfully committed the murder. Lady Macbeth misuses her free will, as she only looks in interest of herself and Macbeth, not considering anybody else being affected by her actions. A change in her characterization occurs after Macbeth had become King of Scotland and abused his power by ordering unnecessary murders. Lady Macbeth becomes overwhelmed with guilt as she was the one who forced the impurity in Macbeth, driving her to be mentally and emotionally unstable. She has a gentlewoman to take care of her, and one day a Doctor comes to visit. He evaluates, “Unnatural deeds/ do breed unnatural troubles. Infected minds/ to their deaf pillows will discharge their secrets./ More needs she the divine than the physician” (5.1.75-78). Lady Macbeth’s fate is determined by her free will because her “unnatural deeds” drove her to have an “infected mind” which is out of the Doctor’s control. Her fate is death, as the Doctor believes that there is nothing that can be done to cure her of her troubles. Lady Macbeth’s free will of previous constraint upon Macbeth has led her to feel responsible for Macbeth’s presiding actions. Macbeth kills former friends who he believes are now enemies, susceptible people, and harmless families, showing the impact of Lady Macbeth’s free will. She eventually commits suicide because the pain was unbearable. If Lady Macbeth had not been so forceful towards Macbeth killing Duncan, he would not have gone insane, and she would not have felt guilty. Fate and free will determine Lady Macbeth’s death because her guilt was oppressive causing her suicide. Macbeth’s death came from his free will to ignore his fate. The witches tell Macbeth his fate through various prophecies which change Macbeth’s characterization dramatically throughout the play. He becomes overconfident in his actions as the witches relieve his worries of anybody killing him. Macbeth begins the play as a pure and caring soldier, but eventually turns into an evil tyrant. Once he fulfilled the witches’ prophecy of becoming King of Scotland, he began to misuse his control of the country. Macbeth states, “The castle of Macduff I will surprise, / seize upon Fife, give to th’ edge o’ th’ sword / His wife, his babies, and all unfortunate souls / That trace him in his line…/ This deed I’ll do before this purpose cool” (4.1.171-175). To ensure his own safety, Macbeth decided to kill anyone that is related to Macduff. A king must put his country before himself, but we see the opposite in Macbeth’s rule. Macbeth is doing everything in his power to protect himself, rather than his country. The witches’ prophecies did not specify his rule, only that he is destined to be King of Scotland, therefore it was Macbeth’s free will that he became a tyrant. We see Macbeth approaching his fate when Macduff comes to battle. During the fight, Macbeth’s last few words were, “Before my body / I throw my warlike shield. Lay on, Macduff, / And damned be him that first cries, ‘Hold! Enough!’” (5.8.37-39). Macduff had killed Macbeth, which was Macbeth’s fate. Macbeth had severely misused his power, resulting in the retaliation of his people, leading to his own death. Fate and free will were responsible for the death of Macbeth, because his unfair ruling angered the people, leading them to avenge. Macbeth, being overconfident, was not prepared for this comeback, and was consequently defeated. Macbeth’s fate was determined by his inconsiderate previous actions, or free will, which led Macduff to murder Macbeth. Fate and free will work together interchangeably to determine the deaths of Duncan, Lady Macbeth, and Macbeth. Fate is predetermined, but the way in which we reach it, is due to our free will. One’s decision will not only impact how they reach their own fate, but also other’s fate. Before making outrageous choices, one must consider the effects it may have on other people and to be mindful of everyone’s lives. Although one may not be able to change their destiny, they can still change their actions and perception to be respectful towards others. 2019-3-11-1552296886

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Student Commencement speeches to tap into themes faced by Class of 2024

Part of the commencement 2024 series.

A collection of stories covering Harvard University’s 373rd Commencement.

Three graduating students selected in a University-wide competition will deliver speeches Thursday at Tercentenary Theatre as part of the one of the oldest traditions of Commencement.

The student orators are Blake Alexander Lopez, a senior from the College who will deliver the Latin Salutatory; Shruthi Kumar, also a College senior, who will deliver the Senior English Address; and Robert Clinton, J.D. ’24, a Harvard Law School graduate who will deliver the Graduate English Address.

Overcoming those 6 feet of separation

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When Lopez arrived on campus in the fall of 2020, six months into the COVID pandemic, first-year students could live in dorms, but they had to attend classes online and keep social distance as part of public health guidelines to slow the spread of the virus.

A joint classical languages and literature and linguistics concentrator with a secondary field in medieval studies, Lopez will address “that sort of nearer distance that we found ourselves within” in the Latin oration he will deliver during the Morning Exercises of Commencement.

“Being a student on campus in the fall of 2020 felt like we were in the proximity of all these things we had so long dreamed about, and yet there was an inherent separation between us,” said Lopez, a Kirkland House resident. “We were physically rather close, living in rooms next to each other and seeing each other on our computer screens because we had to stay socially distant.”

But as the pandemic eased its grip, members of the Class of 2024 returned to normal life and built closer relationships with one another. Celebrating graduation in person and together is a reason to celebrate, said Lopez.

“What I would like the audience to take away from my speech is that whatever difficulties were posed to us, we were able to meet them, adapt and exhibit a resilience that allowed us to thrive,” said Lopez. “There is so much our class has to be proud of, in view of what we faced. It is because what we faced, we faced together.”

Lopez, who fell in love with Latin in high school, said the language will serve him well to talk about both separation and closeness. Latin is considered a dead language because there are no native speakers. During his speech, subtitles will appear on screens in the Yard, and an English translation will be included in the program flyer.

“There’s a layer of separation between the reader of the speech’s English translation and myself delivering it in Latin,” said Lopez, who grew up in Chicago. “But being able to communicate my ideas and the feelings behind them across the linguistic boundary is reflective in a lot of ways of the fact that in spite of the barriers separating the Class of 2024 when we first arrived on campus, we were able to traverse that distance.”

At Harvard, Lopez strengthened his love of Latin and the classics. His senior thesis focused in part on ancient graffiti inscriptions found in Pompeii, which include jokes, riddles, literary quotations, and the customary “I was here.” The subject fascinates him because it provides a glimpse into the intimate relationship between Latin and the way common people made use of it.

After graduation, Lopez will pursue a master’s degree in classics at Oxford University. For now, he cherishes the fact that he was able to realize the dream he started nurturing when he was applying to Harvard.

“The fact that hundreds of years going on, we still do a Latin oration at Commencement really captivated me,” said Lopez. “I would sort of daydream about it. I’d like to go back to 17-year-old me and tell him, ‘Hey, we did it.’ Or as they’d say in Latin, ‘Vicimus.’ ”

The power of not knowing

Shruthi Kumar Undergraduate English

Kumar’s speech explores a subject she knows all too well.

Coming to Harvard as a pre-med student, Kumar took a history of science class on health disparities in the U.S., and she had a change of heart.

By embracing uncertainty, she found her passion for public health. “I didn’t know something like history of science existed,” said Kumar, a joint history of science and economics concentrator with a secondary in human evolutionary biology. “But I fell in love with that class, and I realized that history of science was what I really wanted to study to find ways to address the world’s biggest health problems.”

A Mather House resident, Kumar is glad she took risks during her time at Harvard and challenged societal and parental expectations when she switched pre-med studies for classes on health inequities and public health issues. In hindsight, Kumar said her decision made sense. After all, she had been interested in public health since high school, when she was involved in a mental health education program for youth.

In College, Kumar started a campaign to ensure that all Harvard bathrooms supply free menstrual products. Thanks to her advocacy, 817 bathrooms across the University are fully stocked with free tampons and sanitary pads on a regular basis.

Navigating the uncertainty of choosing a new career concentration could be nerve-racking, but Kumar found strength when she decided to follow her inner voice. “You’re supposed to make money, you’re supposed to have a family, you’re supposed to do this, that, or the other,” she said. “But at the end of the day, I think we owe it to ourselves to listen to that voice inside that tells us, ‘Oh, this is what I’m passionate about.’”

Kumar is confident her message will resonate with the Class of 2024, which started their first year amid the uncertainty of the pandemic. “There is a lot you don’t know in your first year, and on top of that, there was COVID,” said Kumar, who grew up in Omaha, Nebraska. “Our class had to grapple with not knowing what was going to happen in the next few years of our College experience. … We have gone through College with this chaos, and we have developed a strength to deal with uncertainty, and that’s what makes us powerful.”

The power of not knowing can be revelatory, said Kumar. After graduation, she will work on public health entrepreneurship and after that, she plans to attend law school or pursue a Ph.D.

“We are all people walking through the world, not really knowing what’s going to happen,” Kumar said. “But the power of not knowing is about how you can turn that space of fear and anxiety into something that is empowering, uplifting, and exciting. It’s a conscious shift that you must make pretty much all the time every day.”

‘Working hard’ vs. ‘doing good’

Robert Clinton Graduate English

Growing up in Richmond, California, in an African American middle-class family, Clinton felt the call to public service early on. He is not sure where it came from, but he believes that both being the child of civil servants and being Black in the U.S. may have contributed to his commitment to the common good.

In his Commencement speech, Clinton will urge students to use their privilege and power to better the lives of fellow citizens and create a more equitable society. Privilege comes with social responsibility, he said.

“Some people who graduate from Harvard are going to be presidents or senators, but most people are going to be managers, professors, and even if they are not at the very top, they will still have a lot of power,” said Clinton. “We will be people with good jobs because we went to Harvard. And that means that we must be on the lookout for opportunities to help people.”

Harvard graduates should put their education to good use, said Clinton, who found inspiration in the work of actor and activist Harry Belafonte, who used his fame to support the Civil Rights struggle. Clinton was also stirred by the words of a Law School professor who exhorted students to find something bigger than themselves and be part of it.

“There’s a difference between working hard and doing good,”he said. “People here know how to work really hard, but working hard doesn’t necessarily mean that you’re making the world better or doing your part.”

Before coming to the Law School, Clinton worked for the city of San Francisco in the Office of Civic Engagement and Immigrant Affairs. But he began thinking seriously about the law when he became involved with efforts to remove a citizenship question from the 2020 U.S. Census questionnaire. A coalition of immigrant groups challenged former President Donald Trump’s administration before the Supreme Court, which ruled in favor of the petitioners.

“I got to see how lawyers can use the law to help people and to hold people accountable,” Clinton said. “It was really inspiring.”

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“It was the first legal case that I followed from beginning to end,” said Clinton. “I read the briefs even though I didn’t know what they meant, I listened to the oral argument, and I was shocked when against all the odds, they won the case.

“And it just so happens that Judge Ho is going to be my first boss after law school. I joked with him in the interview that he was one of the reasons why I went to Law School. It feels like a wonderful full-circle moment.”

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‘Romeo and Juliet’ Review: Plenty of Style, but Little Love

The London production, starring Tom Holland, sold out in hours. But its understated rendering of the central romance may leave some theatergoers wanting more.

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As the male lead entered the stage in a new production of “Romeo and Juliet” in London, a single, very loud whoop erupted from the orchestra level. Nobody else joined in — this is Britain, after all — but the breach of decorum was telling. This particular Romeo is the big-screen superstar Tom Holland, of “Spider-Man” fame, and his pulling power helped tickets for this show’s run sell out within hours — even though the actor playing Juliet wasn’t cast until many weeks later.

Yet this “Romeo and Juliet,” directed by Jamie Lloyd (“ Sunset Boulevard ,” “ The Effect ”) and running at the Duke of York’s Theater through Aug. 3, is no straightforward crowd-pleaser. The visuals are stripped-down and the staging unconventional; instead of indulging the giddy melodrama of young love, the emphasis is on brooding atmospherics. The show is slickly executed by a talented cast and production crew, but its understated rendering of the lovers’ romantic infatuation may leave some theatergoers wanting more.

The stage is dark, and entirely bare except for a sign that announces the setting in chunky capitals: VERONA. The performers, in monochrome streetwear, are illuminated by hazy spotlights. (Set design and costumes are by Soutra Gilmour.) In several scenes, they speak from fixed positions, stationed behind microphone stands, sometimes facing the audience rather than each other. The gloomy visuals are complemented by snatches of ambient techno and a dull humming sound that conjures a sense of anticipatory dread. To keep the audience on its toes, some scene changes are punctuated by blinding lights and obnoxiously loud flashbulb clacks. (The sound is by Ben and Max Ringham, the lighting by Jon Clark.)

The minimalist staging puts an extra onus on the actors to make the script shine, and they don’t disappoint. Holland gives a controlled performance as Romeo, evoking the halting, hopeful awkwardness of a love-struck teenager with understatement. As Juliet, Francesca Amewudah-Rivers is similarly restrained: Tentative and inscrutable during the early phase of the courtship, she is at her best in the scenes in which she stands up to her father, Lord Capulet (Tomiwa Edun) as he pressures her to break it off with Romeo. In these moments, Amewudah-Rivers — who is making her West End debut — displays an impregnable abstractedness that rings true to the stubborn determination of adolescence.

The supporting cast is also less experienced than the illustrious leading man, but for the most part, you wouldn’t know it. Edun convinces as the hectoring, overbearing patriarch. Freema Agyeman plays the Nurse, the affable go-between who enables the lovers’ forbidden affair, with a fine blend of sassy assertiveness and quasi-maternal tenderness. Ray Sesay’s Tybalt is impressively menacing and Nima Taleghani, with his wide-eyed and gentle bearing, is tenderly protective as Romeo’s trusty friend, Benvolio.

At times the spectacle feels more like a reading than a play, but some nifty camerawork injects dynamism. A camera operator intermittently appears onstage and films close-up footage of an actor’s face, which is relayed in real time onto a screen above the stage. This technique — familiar from the work of directors such as Ivo van Hove and Christine Jatahy — can sometimes feel frustratingly gratuitous, leading to a sense of visual clutter, but it feels smooth here. During some scenes, actors are filmed elsewhere in the theater — in its foyer bar, corridors and balcony — while others occupy the stage. This gives a fitting sense of simultaneity in a narrative replete with back-channel dialogues and conspiratorial maneuverings.

Lloyd has tried to condense the story to its essence, just as he did in his Olivier-winning take on “Sunset Boulevard.” To this end, one or two scenes — such as the finale in which the Montagues and Capulets agree to set aside their differences after Romeo and Juliet’s deaths — have been abridged. The production’s artful subtlety is encapsulated in the tragic denouement, when the lovers’ deaths are conveyed simply by Holland and Amewudah-Rivers removing their mics.

The restrained portrayal of the lovers’ passion is aesthetically brave, but there’s a downside: In his determination to eschew the easy charms of melodrama, Lloyd slightly undercooks the romance, which in turn diminishes our investment in its terrible ramifications. There are other Shakespeare plays that lend themselves better to this kind of high-concept treatment, because they are more psychologically complex. ( A similarly stylized “Macbeth,” staring David Tennant, which ran at the Donmar Warehouse last year and will transfer to the West End in the fall, comes to mind.)

Leaving the theater, I encountered an excitable throng of mostly young fans hoping to catch a glimpse of Holland. His superstar status will attract a mainstream audience to this show. But what will they make of it? “Spider-Man” it most certainly ain’t.

Romeo and Juliet Through Aug. 3 at the Duke of York’s Theater in London; thedukeofyorks.com .

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